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Biology > Biology 112 Final Test > Flashcards

Biology 112 Final Test Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the phases of the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle?

A

G1, G2, S, M

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2
Q

How much time does it take for the whole eukaryotic cell cycle?

A

24 hours

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3
Q

What is G1 and G2 phases of the cell cycle?

A

Gap phases

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4
Q

What is the S phase of the cell cycle?

A

DNA replication

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5
Q

How long does it take for S phase to do its job?

A

10 hours

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6
Q

What is the M phase in cell division?

A

Mitosis

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7
Q

How long does it take for M phase to do its job?

A

1 hour

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8
Q

What are the two big overall steps of DNA replication?

A

1) 2 parent strands are separated

2) Each parent strand is used as a TEMPLATE

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9
Q

In the first step of DNA replication, what is broken?

A

hydrogen bonds

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10
Q

How is DNA replication not transcription?

A
  • more than 1 protein copied
  • process is not to synthesize mRNA
  • its semi-conservative`
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11
Q

Where does DNA replication begin?

A

origins of replication

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12
Q

Which direction does DNA proceed?

A

bidirectionally from the origin

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13
Q

How many start points are on each chromosome?

A

thousands

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14
Q

How many bases are needed each time the cell divides?

A

6 billion

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15
Q

What is a plasmid?

A

circular piece of DNA commonly found in bacteria

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16
Q

What is the rate of replication?

A

2000bp/minute (30ish per second)

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17
Q

How long would it take if there was only one origin of replication?

A

1 month

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18
Q

Why are origins of replication AT rich?

A

2 hydrogen bonds break easier than 3 of GC

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19
Q

What is ORC?

A

multi-subunit protein that binds at Origin to initiate replication

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20
Q

Which cells in the body are always replicating because of mechanical stress?

A

epithelial

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21
Q

What are enzymes that catalyze DNA replication?

A

DNA polymerases

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22
Q

Which direction of DNA does DNA polymerase work?

A

5’ to 3’

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23
Q

What is the problem of the direction DNA polymerase works?

A

DNA has two strands that are opposite directions

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24
Q

What is the strand that is made 5’ to 3’ called?

A

leading strand

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25
Q

What is the strand made 3’ to 5’ called?

A

lagging strand

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26
Q

How is the lagging strand made?

A

In fragments

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27
Q

DNA is not straight but spiral, what does this cause?

A

mechanical stress further down

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28
Q

What works to relieve the stress?

A

topoisomerase (gyrase)

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29
Q

How does the topoisomerase work?

A

Knicks/cuts one of two strands, unravel, then reconnect

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30
Q

What is a ligase?

A

an enzyme that will link okazaki fragments together

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31
Q

DNA Polymerases make mistakes…if not fixed what would happen

A

DNA would have mutations forever

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32
Q

What is the process of removing incorrect base and putting in correct base called?

A

proofreading

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33
Q

What are single stranded DNA binding proteins function?

A

single strand of DNA is susceptible and unstable and SSB gives protection and stability till nucleotides bond

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34
Q

What comes in to make short pieces of RNA to get DNA replication started?

A

primase

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35
Q

What binds the lagging strand parts?

A

ligase

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36
Q

What are ways DNA can be damaged?

A

carcinogens

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37
Q

What are carcinogens?

A

cancer causing agents

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38
Q

What is the process of DNA excision and repair?

A

1) enzymes recognize damage
2) damage is removed
3) Polymerase can fill in
4) DNA ligase does the rest

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39
Q

What is the outcome/ product of mitosis?

A

two identical daughter cells

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40
Q

What are the four stages of mitosis?

A

1) prophase
2) metaphase
3) anaphase
4) telophase

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41
Q

What happens in prophase?

A
  • chromosomes condense
  • centrosomes migrate
  • mitotic spindle forms
  • nuclear membrane fragments
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42
Q

What do chromosomes condense into?

A

compact fibers that are extensively folded

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43
Q

What forms the mitotic spindle?

A

microtubules from the centrosomes

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44
Q

What is the Kinetochore?

A

a protein complex attached to the chromosomes at centromere

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45
Q

What is Metaphase?

A

the point where prophase has occurred and chromosomes have been lined up but not yet separated

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46
Q

What is the metaphase plate?

A

the imaginary plane that is equidistant from the 2 poles of the spindle in which the chromosomes line up upon

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47
Q

When are chromosomes analyzed in lab?

A

metaphase

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48
Q

What occurs in anaphase?

A

sister chromatids are separated

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49
Q

How are the chromatids pulled?

A

microtubules getting shorter and shorter

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50
Q

What causes the microtubules to get shorter?

A

Small Motor proteins removing tubulin subunits from the microtubules

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51
Q

What is telophase?

A

the rebuilding of the cells

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52
Q

What is the final step in cell division?

A

cytokinesis

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53
Q

What is a contractile ring composed of?

A

actin and myosin

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54
Q

What is the product of meiosis?

A

four cells that ONLY contain one copy of each pair of homologous chromosomes

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55
Q

What are haploid cells?

A

only contain one pair of homologous chromosomes

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56
Q

What are homologous chromosomes?

A

similar but not exactly identical

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57
Q

What are alleles?

A

variations in genes

58
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

non-germ cells, diploid, contain 46 chromosomes

59
Q

What are germ cells?

A

haploid and contain only one set of chromosomes

60
Q

How do haploid cells result in diploid state?

A

fertilization

61
Q

How are Gametes formed?

A

process of meiosis

62
Q

How many nuclear divisions are in meiosis?

A

two

63
Q

How many daughter cells result of meiosis?

A

4

64
Q

Are the 4 daughter cells of meiosis identical?

A

No, they are each genetically different

65
Q

What is the key of meiosis?

A

homologous pairs line up in pairs and during 1st division sister chromatids stay together

66
Q

What is the four stranded structure produced in lining of homologous chromosomes?

A

bivalent

67
Q

What occurs in the first division during Meiosis I?

A

homologous chromosomes are separated from each other and two cells are formed

68
Q

What occurs in the second division during Meiosis II?

A

The sister chromatids line up and are separated resulting in 4 cells of 23 chromosomes

69
Q

What occurs in meiosis that lends towards more genetic diversity?

A

chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange DNA

70
Q

Why is only one egg formed in female?

A

uneven distribution of cytopasm results in only one function

71
Q

What is the probability of conceiving genetically identical children?

A

1 in 64 trillion

72
Q

Why do cells need to communicate with each other?

A

behavior of cells throughout body should be coordinated

73
Q

What do cells make up that affect communication?

A

cells make up tissues that make up organs that then should be regulated by cell activity

74
Q

What is one thing, other than organelles, that each cell has?

A

genome

75
Q

What is genome?

A

have all genes/DNA

76
Q

Are all genomes expressed?

A

No, only the genes needed for function of the cells

77
Q

What is gene expression regulated by?

A

transcription factors

78
Q

What is a huge end result of expression and communication?

A

regulation of genes

79
Q

What are transcription factors often regulated by?

A

signaling pathways

80
Q

What does signaling pathway ultimately end with?

A

signaling factors

81
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

No signaling or a signal tells it to go away, DNA self destruction

82
Q

What is the process of signaling?

A

1) receptor-ligand binding
2) signal transuction
3) cellular responses
4) changes in gene expression

83
Q

Are the receptors specific or general?

A

specific to protein

84
Q

What does it mean that signal transduction pathways can amplify?

A

the cell pathways are not 1:1 and amplify and activate other cells so the signal gets bigger and bigger

85
Q

What are the two types of signaling

A

Homonal

Local mediators

86
Q

What is homone signaling?

A

distant cell that binds to a target cell at some distance away

87
Q

What is local mediator signaling?

A

cell is communicating with the cells adjacent or close to it

ex: nervous system

88
Q

What types of cells can pass through a membrane and directly bind to intracellular targets?

A

steroids

89
Q

What are the two types of cell-surface receptors?

A

1) G-protein linked

2) enzyme-linked recptors

90
Q

What is the g stand for in g linked receptors?

A

guanine

91
Q

What is the largest class of cell-surface receptors?

A

g-protein

92
Q

What type of cells is g-protein found?

A

eukaryotes

93
Q

What do G-protein linked receptors consist of?

A

single polypeptide chains

7-membrane spanning domains

94
Q

What is the function of G-protein linked receptors?

A

binding of signal molecule causes conformational change activates a G-protein

95
Q

What are G-proteins?

A

GTPases

96
Q

How is the inactivated binded GDP activated?

A

when it binds GTP it releases alpha unit and becomes activated that can activate other proteins

97
Q

Is the signal of G-protein temporary or lasting?

A

temporary

98
Q

What ends the signal of G-protein?

A

GTPase breaks down to GDP which ends signaling pathway

99
Q

What is enzyme linked receptors?

A

single-pass transmembrane proteins

100
Q

What is the function of enzyme-linked receptors?

A

bind signal molecules

101
Q

How fast is the enzyme linked receptor?

A

slow (hours)

102
Q

Cystosolic domain is either an enzyme itself OR associated directly with an enzyme…

A

INFO

103
Q

Receptor Tyrosine Kinases outside function.

A

binding receptor inside= phosphorylating things

104
Q

How are receptor tyrosine kinases activated?

A

dimerization following binding of signaling molecule

105
Q

what is autophosphorylation?

A

monomers phosphorylate each other

106
Q

What do phosphorylated tyrosines serve as?

A

binding sites for other signaling proteins

107
Q

What is carcinoma?

A

cancers arising from epithelial cells

108
Q

Why is epithelial most common?

A

deal with most mechanical stress and need duplication the most

109
Q

What are 2 main characteristics of cancer cells?

A

1) uncontrolled growth

2) ability to spread

110
Q

What are 6 results of uncontrolled growth?

A

1) anchorage independent growth
2) lose contact inhibition
3) abnormalities in signaling pathways
4) disruptions in cell cycle control
5) block of apoptosis
6) balance of replication/differentiation is shifted

111
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

programmed cell death

112
Q

Does cancer occur at one mutation?

A

No, it is the accumulation of mutations over a lifetime

113
Q

What occurs when balance of differentiation is disrupted?

A

tumors occur, build up of cells

114
Q

Why does apoptosis occur?

A

health of entire organism is more important than any single cell

115
Q

What are two forms of cell death?

A

1) apoptosis

2) necrosis

116
Q

What is necrosis?

A

cell bursts and contents spill out

117
Q

How does necrosis result?

A

1) injury

2) inflammatory response

118
Q

How does apoptosis process occur?

A

1) cell condenses and shrinks
2) cell surface changes to cause endocytosis by macrophage
3) chromosomal DNA is cleaved

119
Q

How does apoptosis and cancer relate?

A

If process is mutated

120
Q

What is the difference between benign and malignant tumors?

A

ability to spread

121
Q

What is a benign tumor?

A

single mass of cells that have not invaded surrounding tissue

122
Q

What is malignant tumor?

A

cells have acquired ability to invade surrounding tissue

123
Q

What is metastases?

A

cells can break off from primary tumor, enter the bloodstream, and form secondary tumors at other sites

124
Q

For the ability to spread what do tumors need?

A

Angiogenesis
Invasion
Metastasis

125
Q

What is angiogenesis?

A

new blood vessel formation

126
Q

Without angiogenesis how large can tumors grow?

A

1-2mm

127
Q

What initiates angiogenesis?

A

VEGF to bind to blood vessels and initiate growth

128
Q

What is invasion?

A

direct migration into neighboring tissues

129
Q

What do cancer cells release that destroys protein barrier?

A

proteases enzymes

130
Q

Where do cancers metastasize/ why?

A

Lymph nodes: before entering bloodstream, many cancer cells enter lymphatic vessels and are carried to lymph nodes to blood stream

131
Q

Once tumors in bloodstream where do they usually go?

A

Lungs: tumors in most organs encounter capillary bed of the lungs when they enter blood stream
Liver: cancers arising in stomach and colon cells enter the liver shortly after entering bloodstream

132
Q

What are the two factors that cause cancer?

A

Hereditary

Environmental

133
Q

What are chemicals that cause cancer called?

A

carcinogens

134
Q

What do carcinogens often cause?

A

DNA mutations

135
Q

What other factors cause DNA mutations?

A

UV light and radiation, viruses

136
Q

How many mutations are needed in order for a cell to be cancerous?

A

6-10 mutations

137
Q

What two specific genes are mutated by carcinogens and radiation?

A

1) Oncogenes

2) tumor suppressors

138
Q

What are oncogenes?

A

tell the cell when to duplicate and promote growth in cells under normal circumstances

139
Q

What are tumor suppressors?

A

tells the genes when to stop duplication

140
Q

What occurs when oncogenes are expressed at higher levels?

A

cancer, over growth of cell

141
Q

What occurs when tumor suppressors lose function of being turned off or non-functional?

A

cancer

142
Q

What is chemotherapy?

A

anti-cancer drugs that kill rapidly growing cells

Biology (6 decks)

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