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Biology paper 2 prep Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is a cell?

A

A group of organelles working together to perform the same function

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2
Q

What is tissue

A

A group of cells working together to perform the same function

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3
Q

What is an organ

A

A group of tissues working together to perform the same function.

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4
Q

What is an organ system

A

A group of organs working together to perform the same function

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5
Q

What is an organism

A

A group of organ systems working together to perform the same function.

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6
Q

What are the different organ systems

A

-The endocrine system
-The digestive system
-The reproductive system
-The nervous system
-The excretory system
-The circulatory system
-The respiratory system

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7
Q

How does a 16 cell embryo form

A

The zygote splits by mitosis

-2 cells —> 4 cells –> 8 cells —-> 16 cells.

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8
Q

What is differentiation

A

The process where cells become specialised

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9
Q

What are the 2 types of stem cells

A

-Embryotic stem cell
-Adult stem cell

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10
Q

What can embryotic stem cells do that adult stem cells can’t

A

They can differentiate into any cell type

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11
Q

What are the benefits and disadvantages of using embryotic stem cells to treat diseases

A

-They can differentiate into any cell type so can treat many diseases

-It is seen as ethically wrong as the cells come from aborted fetuses which can be considered a human life.

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12
Q

What are enzymes

A

Biological catalysts that increase the rate of reaction without being used up.

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13
Q

What is the definition of digestion

A

The breakdown of large insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules.

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14
Q

What is mechanical digestion

A

It breaks down food physically into smaller pieces, in the mouth (teeth) and the stomach lining.

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15
Q

How does digestion occur in the mouth

A

The teeth physically breaks down food and chemical digestion occurs as amylase is secreted which digests starch into glucose.

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16
Q

Where does food move to after it is ingested through the mouth

A

It passes down the pipe called the oesophagus.

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17
Q

What is peristalsis

A

It is a process that moves food through the gut by muscular contractions that push the bolus down the oesophagus.

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18
Q

How is food churned in the stomach

A

By lots of muscular contraction in the stomach lining.

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19
Q

What is secreted into the stomach to kill pathogens and break down food

A

Hydrochloric acid

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20
Q

What does protease do

A

Breaks down proteins into amino acids

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21
Q

What happens once the stomach digests food

A

The stomach is emptied and food flows into the small intestine

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22
Q
A
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22
Q

What is bile

A

It is made in the liver, stored in the gall bladder and released into the small intestine

It emulsifies fats to increase the SA and neutralises stomach acid so enzymes in the small intestine don’t denature.

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23
Q

How is villi benefitted for absorption

A

-Large SA
-Microvilli for larger SA
-Short diffusion distance
-Plentiful blood supply due to lots of capillaries.

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24
Q

Role of the Large intestine

A

Here water is reabsorbed back into thee blood

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25
Q

Where is faeces stored and egested

A

The rectum and the anus

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26
Q

What is excretion

A

the removal of waste products of metabolism

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27
Q

What is ingestion

A

Taking in of food into the body

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28
Q

What is metabolism

A

The rate at which chemical reactions take place

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29
Q

What is transpiration

A

The loss of water from the surface of a plant

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30
Q

Composition of blood

A

RBC
WBC
Platelets
Plasma

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31
Q

Role of the platelets

A

They clot the blood at the site of a wound

-Soluble fibrogens convert into insoluble fibrin.

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32
Q

How are pathogens prevented from entering the body

A

Skin acts as a barrier

HCL in the stomach destroy pathogens

Tears, nose hairs and eye lashes trap pathogens.

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33
Q

What is the role of phagocytes

A

They ingest pathogens and secrete digestive enzymes

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34
Q

What is the role of lymphocytes

A

-Recognises the antigens on the pathogens and secretes antibodies to destroy them

-They label pathogens so pathogens can be easily recognised by phagocytes

-They neutralise toxins produced by the pathogen

-Causes pathogens to stick together

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35
Q

How do vaccines work

A

Vaccinations contain a dead/weakened form of the pathogen

-Contains the pathogens antigens

-Lymphocytes recognise the antigens and produce antibodies

-Memory cells are created

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36
Q

Purpose of memory cells

A

They produce antibodies much faster and in larger volume to prevent pathogens affecting the body again.

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37
Q

Why are ventricle walls thicker than atria walls

A

Because they have to pump blood further and at a higher pressure

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38
Q

Why is the left ventricle wall thicker than the right ventricle

A

Because it has to pump oxygenated blood all over the body and at a higher pressure.

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39
Q

Why is the CS a double circulatory system

A

Because blood pumps into the heart twice for every one it passes around the rest of the body.

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40
Q

Where does the hepatic portal vein take blood from and to

A

The stomach and the small intestine —> Liver

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41
Q

Renal =

Hepatic =

Pulmonary =

Coronary =

A

Kidney

Liver

Lungs

Heart

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42
Q

Role of coronary arteries

A

They provide the heart with it’s own oxygen supply so it can contract and pump blood

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43
Q

Cause of coronary heart disease

A

Fatty deposits build up in the walls of the coronary artery preventing oxygen flow to the heart, also causing anaerobic respiration and the build up of lactic acid.

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44
Q

What are the ways excretion occurs in humans

A

Carbon dioxide from the lungs

Sweat from skin

Urea from kidneys

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45
Q

Feces are _____ not ______

A

egested not excreted

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46
Q

What are the 3 main components of the kidney

A

Bowman’s capsule
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
Collecting Duct

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47
Q

What happens at Bowman’s capsule

A

-Ultrafiltration occurs

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48
Q

What is ultrafiltration

A

Small molecules (glucose, ions, water, urea)
are forced out of the blood into bowman’s capsule under pressure

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49
Q

Why don’t proteins go through bowman’s capsule

A

Because protein molecules are too large and don’t fit - they stay in the blood.

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50
Q

What happens at the Proximal Convoluted Tubule

A

-Selective Reabsorption occurs, Glucose and some ions move back into the blood

-Energy is required for this, this is provided by active transport as they are moving across the concentration gradient.

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51
Q

What process occurs at the Collecting Duct

A

Osmoregulation

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52
Q

What is Osmoregulation

A

The controlling of water content in the blood

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53
Q

What happens when you have little to drink

A

-The hypothalamus detects low water content
-Sends a signal to the pituitary gland to release more ADH
-This makes the walls in the collecting duct more permeable to water meaning more water moves back into the blood by osmosis
-This means urine is highly concentrated and has a low volume

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54
Q

What happens when you have a lot to drink

A

-The hypothalamus detects high water content
-Sends a signal to the Pituitary gland to release less ADH
-Walls in the collecting duct become less permeable to water
-Less water is reabsorbed back into the blood
-Urine is a pale colour, low concentration and High in volume

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55
Q

What is the ureter

A

The vessel linking the collecting duct to the bladder.

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56
Q

What is the urethra

A

-The vessel taking urine out of the bladder

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57
Q

What is transported in the urethra

A

Sperm and urine

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58
Q

What is a stimulus

A

A change in the environment

59
Q

What are the sense organs in humans

A

-Ear
-Eyes
-Nose
-Tongue
-Muscle
-Skin

60
Q

Nervous system vs Hormonal system

A

-Nervous system involves electrical impulses whereas Hormonal system uses chemical messengers in the blood

-Hormonal system responses are longer-lasting

-Electrical impulses target a specific effector muscle, hormone releases are more wide-spread

-The release of hormones takes longer

61
Q

CNS

A

Central nervous system, contains both the brain and the spinal cord.

62
Q

What happens in a nervous response

A

The stimulus is received by a receptor
-The impulse then travels along the sensory neurone to the CNS
-Then the impulse travels to the motor neurone, as a neurotransmitter diffuses across a synapse and the impulse travels to the effector muscle/gland.

63
Q

What happens in a reflex response

A

-The stimuli is received by the receptor
-The impulse travels across the sensory neurone to the relay neurone
-The impulse then is sent to the motor neurone where the effector muscle contracts to reduce harm.

64
Q

Reflex responses are __________

A

Involuntary and don’t involve the brain.

65
Q

What is a synapse

A

The gap between two neurones where neurotransmitters are released that diffuse across the synapse.

66
Q

What is homeostasis

A

Maintaining a constant internal environment

67
Q

How does the skin aid heat loss?

A

-By sweating as it evaporates
-Hairs on the skin laying flat so less insulated air is trapped close to the body

68
Q

Roles of the skin

A

-Sense organ for pain, touch and pressure

-Tough outer

-Prevents pathogens from entering

-Controls heat loss

-Prevents water loss

69
Q

What happens when you are too hot (homeostasis)

A

-You sweat meaning evaporation occurs aiding heat loss

-Vasodilation occurs, Arterioles become wider meaning more blood can flow closer to the surface of the skin meaning more heat is lost by radiation.

-Hairs lay flat so less insulated air is trapped closer to the body

70
Q

What happens when you are too cold (homeostasis)

A

-Hair stand up to trap insulated air close to the body

-Shivering causes muscle contractions which releases heat internally

-Vasoconstriction occurs, arterioles become narrower meaning less blood flows closer to the surface of the skin meaning less heat is lost by radiation.

71
Q

How is blood sugar levels decreased when we’ve eaten

A

-Insulin is released from the pancreas

-Insulin converts soluble glucose into insoluble glycogen so it can be stored in the liver.

72
Q

Process of sexual reproduction in humans

A

-2 parents required
-Gametes (egg and sperm) fuse together and fertilisation occurs
-Zygote is formed and mitosis occurs forming an embryo.

—> Sexual reproduction produces genetic variation

73
Q

Characteristics of Asexual Reproduction

A

Only requires 1 parent
Much faster than sexual reproduction
Offspring are identical –> cloning

74
Q

How is a 32 cell Embryo formed

A

-The gametes the egg and sperm fuse together and fertilisation occurs
-The first cell formed is a zygote
-Mitotic cell division occurs 5 times forming a 32 cell embryo.

75
Q

Example of Asexual reproduction in plants

A

-Strawberry runners
-potato tubers.

76
Q

Components of the female reproductive system?

A

-Ovaries
-Fallopian tubes
-Uterus
-Vagina
-Cervix

77
Q

Role of the ovaries

A

Makes eggs and the hormones oestrogen and progesterone.

78
Q

Role of the cervix

A

It is the entrance to the uterus

79
Q

Role of the fallopian tubes

A

Eggs are transported here to the uterus and it is the site of fertilisation

80
Q

Role of the uterus

A

-Where the zygote forms and where the embryo develops.

81
Q

Role of the vagina

A

Penis delivers semen here during intercourse (cringe)

82
Q

Role of the testes

A

Makes sperm and testosterone

83
Q

Role of the sperm duct

A

Tube that transports semen from the testes to the urethra

84
Q

urethra

A

Transports semen and urine out of the body

85
Q

Role of the prostate gland

A

Contribute seminal fluid

86
Q

Journey of a sperm cell to the egg

A

Enters the vagina and moves up the cervix into the uterus, then the sperm swims up the fallopian tubes where it fertilises the egg.

87
Q

Role of the Placenta

A

Provides the fetus with amino acids, glucose and oxygen

Removes urea, carbon dioxide and waste minerals

88
Q

Hormones in the female reproductive system

A

FSH
LH
Oestrogen
Progesterone

89
Q

Role of FSH

A

Follicle stimulation hormone which means it causes the egg to mature

Secreted from the pituitary gland

90
Q

Role of LH

A

Causes ovulation (the release of an egg from the ovary) secreted from the pituitary gland

91
Q

Role of oestrogen

A

released from the ovaries and it inhibits the release of FSH and repairs the uterus lining

It also promotes female secondary sexual characteristics

92
Q

Role of progesterone

A

It is released from the ovaries and it maintains the uterus lining

93
Q

Role of testosterone

A

Produced in the testes and promotes male secondary sexual characteristics

94
Q

Why is transpiration important for plants

A

It helps transport water and minerals from the roots to the leaves and regulates the plant’s temperature

It also maintains turgor pressure in the cells

95
Q

What is a genome

A

The entire DNA of an organism

96
Q

What is the role of the nucleus

A

It controls the activites of the cell and stores genetic information.

97
Q

How many chromosomes are in the human body

A

46, 23 pairs

98
Q

What is the male sex chromosomes

A

XY

99
Q

Female sex chromosomes

A

XX

100
Q

What is a gene

A

A length of DNA that codes for a specific protein

101
Q

Structure of DNA

A

Double helix

-Made up of sugar phosphate backbone

-Linking the two backbones are bases

102
Q

Bases in DNA

A

Adenine - Thymine

Cytosine - Guanine

103
Q

Nucleotide

A

3 units made up of
-deoxyribose sugar
-Phosphate
-Base - C,T,A,G

104
Q

Differences between RNA and DNA

A

DNA is double stranded, RNA is single stranded

DNA is made up of deoxyribose sugar whereas RNA is made up of ribose sugar.

RNA has no Thymine but instead has uracil

105
Q

Codon

A

Three bases found in mRNA and corresponds to a single amino acid

106
Q

Anti-codon

A

A sequence of 3 bases on tRNA that matches the complimentary codon on mRNA.

107
Q

What are the 2 main stages of protein synthesis

A

Transcription
Translation

108
Q

What occurs during Protein Synthesis

A

-DNA unwinds to expose a single strand, exposing bases

-Unpaired bases in the nucleus match up the exposed DNA bases.

mRNA leaves the nucleus and attaches to a ribosome within the cytoplasm

tRNA molecules in the cytoplasm have complimentary anticodons that pair up with exposed mRNA bases producing amino acids

Amino acids form using a peptide bond forming a protein chain

109
Q

How do gene mutations occur

A

-Inversion
-Deletion
-Substitution
-Duplication

110
Q

How can chances of mutation increase

A

Exposure to ionising radiation such as gamma rays and X-rays.

111
Q

Definition of environment

A

The total non biological living components in an ecosystem

112
Q

Definition of Habitat

A

Specific place where an organism lives

113
Q

Definition of Population

A

All the organisms that belong to particular species found in an ecosystem

114
Q

Definition of Community

A

The population of all species found in an ecosystem

115
Q

Producer

A

A producer is a plant that photosynthesises to produce food.

116
Q

Consumer

A

A consumer is an animal which eats other animals and plants

117
Q

Decomposer

A

Organism that breaks down dead material

118
Q

Parasite

A

An organism which lives in another organism causing harm

119
Q

Predator

A

An animal which hunts and kill another animal and eats it.

120
Q

Biodiversity

A

The variety of plants and animals found within an ecosystem

121
Q

Ecosystem

A

The interaction between the abiotic and biotic living factors in an environment.

122
Q

What is fish farming?

A

When lots of fish are kept in a tank, optimum conditions are maintained with good water quality

Waste products constantly removed

Diets of fish are kept healthy, lots of protein

Fish isolated from predators to protect them

Sorted by size to prevent larger fish eating smaller fish

Fish with desired characteristics are selectively bred

123
Q

What occurs during selective breeding

A

Humans select animals with desired characteristics and they reproduce

Offspring are then born with desired characteristics as alleles are passed down

Repeat over several generations

124
Q

Can selective breeding occur in plants

A

Yes as plants can cross pollinate and produce off-spring with desired characteristics.

125
Q

What does insulin do after a meal

A

Reduces blood sugar levels

126
Q

How can a high amount of insulin be produced artificially

A

-Cut open a plasmid in a bacterial cell using restriction enzymes

-Use restriction enzyme to cut insulin gene

Insert insulin gene into plasmid using ligase enzyme

Place bacterial cell into fermenter

127
Q

When does a plasmid become recombinant

A

When it has a different gene inserted into it.

128
Q

Why does the fermenter need to be in sterile conditions?

A

To make sure there are no unwanted organisms

129
Q

What are vectors

A

Vectors transport biological material from one place to another.

130
Q

Examples of vectors

A

Plasmids and mosquitos.

131
Q

How can plasmids act as vectors

A

-Small circular pieces of DNA
-Isolated from bacteria
-Desired gene inserted into the plasmid to make recombinant plasmids
-Inserted back into bacteria

132
Q

How can viruses act as Vectors

A

Bacteriophage is a type of virus
-Desired gene is inserted into bacteriophage
-Bacteriophage attaches to cell wall of bacteria
-It injects genetic material into bacterial cell
-Desired gene taken up by bacterial DNA

133
Q

Why are plants genetically modified

A

To improve food production or to improve resistance to herbicides

134
Q

What are herbicides

A

Weed killer

135
Q

Examples of GM plants

A

Golden rice - contains Vitamin A to prevent night blindness

Plants become resistant to herbicides.

136
Q

What is a transgenic organism?

A

An organism where it contains genes that were transferred from another species.

137
Q

What is a clone

A

A clone is a genetically identical organism

an example of this is ‘dolly the sheep’

138
Q

How to make a clone (animals)

A

-Remove the body cell from the animal
-Remove the egg cell from animal of the same species
-enucleate both cells
-Insert nucleus from the body cell into the empty egg cell.
-Fuse by electric shock
-Insert egg cell into the uterus of surrogate mother.
-The cell then divides by mitosis to form an embryo
-Clone of the mother is formed

139
Q

Advantages of cloning over selective breeding

A

-Cloning is genetically identical
-Cloning is quicker
-More offspring are produced with cloning
-No need for two parents in cloning

140
Q

What are the 2 types of cloning in plants

A

-Taking a cutting
-Micropropagation (tissue culture)

141
Q

Describe the process of taking a cutting

A

-Cut a shoot of a plant and dip in rooting powder and transfer to soil

-Then grows into a new genetically identical plant

142
Q

Describe the process of micropropagation

A

-Obtain small parts of a plant (explants)
-Place in agar jelly containing nutrients and hormones
-Explants then develop roots
-Transfer into soil in sterile conditions to avoid any microorganisms
-Provide optimum conditions for optimum growth

143
Q

Advantages of tissue culture vs taking cuttings

A

-Tissue culture produces more plants as cuttings only produce one at a time

-Tissue culture can occur any time of the year

144
Q

How can cloned transgenic animals be used to make proteins

A

-Using cloned transgenic animals means you can make large numbers of genetically identical animals

-These animals can then be used to produce human proteins.

Biology (22 decks)

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