BIOLOGY EXAM 2019

Question 1

What are the levels of organization? (8)
BECPOGCM

What are the levels of organization in the body?

Answer 1

Biosphere (contains all ecosystems)
Ecosystem (community and its surroundings)
Community (populations that live together in an area)
Populations (group of organisms of one type that live in one area)
Organism (individual living thing)
Groups of cells (tissues, organs, organ systems)
Cells (smallest functional unit of life, organelles)
Molecules

Multicelled organism
Organ system 
Organ
Tissue
Organelle
Atom
Sub-atomic particle

Question 2

What are the characteristics of life?

ORDERHEG

Answer 2

Order
Reaction to stimuli
Development
Energy utilization
Reproduction
Homeostasis
Evolutionary adaptation
Growth

Question 3

What are the differences between plant and animal cells? (4)

Answer 3

Plant cells can be larger

Plants have cell walls

Plants have chloroplasts and chlorophyll which makes green color

Plants have large singular vacuole that holds the shape and can hold things

Question 4

What are the characteristics of prokaryotes versus eukaryotes?

Size, cell wall, single versus multi, membrane, contain O2, cell walls contain

Answer 4

P: small; rigid cell wall; single-celled; no membrane bound organelles; may not need O2; cell walls often contain peptidoglycan

E: larger; flexible cell wall; multi-cellular; membrane-bound organelles; usually need O2; cell walls when present are simple

Question 5

What is binary fission? What is conjugation?

Answer 5

Asexual reproduction through binary fusion in which cell division produces daughter cells

Sexual reproduction through conjugation in which donor cell attaches with conjugation tube to recipient cell and exchanged genetic material

Question 6

What is the structure of bacteria? What is the structure of viruses?

Answer 6

Viruses have a core of DNA/RNA in a protein capsid which become active inside a living host, with tail fibers to attach to the host cell

Bacteria have a cell wall and membrane, DNA and plasmid cyto-plasma with flagella trailing

Question 7

What is the development of bacterial resistances? (3)

Answer 7

In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin accidentally when an experiment w/ bacteria was contaminated by mold; Found that penicillin was non-toxic but inhibited the growth of many types of disease-causing bacteria

Bacteria can be treated using antibiotics but some bacteria have developed a resistance to it

Bacteria can be prevented by sterilizing with heat, disinfectants, proper food storage and processing

Question 8

What are the bacterial colony shapes and groupings? (4)

Answer 8

Coccus: round

Bacillus: rod-shaped bacteria

Strepto: long oval shaped; connected at a point

Stapho: circular shaped, tightly connected

Spirillia: spiral or curved shaped

Question 9

What are the advantages of bacteria and viruses? What are the disadvantages?

Answer 9

Viruses: does not replicate without living host; helps build immune system

Causes bad reactions and attacks the body

Bacteria: 99% of bacteria are helpful and can aid in digestion as well as decompose and be natural fertilizers
But some are harmful and possibly deadly and can produce disease by breaking down cells

Question 10

What is binomial nomenclature? Who is Carl Linnaeus?

Answer 10

A two-word naming system for species whereby species are assigned a genus name followed by a species name which form the official universally accepted name (ex Rosa canina)

Carl Linnaeus creates this naming system as well as the taxonomic ranks for classifying species: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

Similar species grouped into genera, similar genera into families, similar families into orders, orders into classes, classes into phyla, and phyla into kingdoms

Question 11

What is a dichotomous key?

Answer 11

A series of branching, two-part contrasting statements used to identify organisms. Each statement leads to another until a species name is reached.

An easy method to identify them but not perfect

Question 12

What is phylogeny? What is taxonomy? How do you group organisms together?

Answer 12

Phylogeny is the study of the evolutionary relatedness between and among species

Taxonomy is the science of identifying and classifying all organisms (living and fossilized)

One groups organisms together based on their evolutionary history, shown through phylogenic trees which shows the evolutionary relatedness between species

Question 13

What are the general characteristics of each kingdom?

Answer 13

Eubacteria: prokaryote; cell wall w/ peptidoglycan; unicellular; auto (can make own nourishment) or hetero (has to find nourishment)

Archaeabacteria: prokaryote; no peptidoglycan; unicellular; auto or hetero

Protista: eukaryote; some have cell walls w/ cellulose other w/ chloroplasts; most unicellular; auto or hetero

Fungi: eukaryote; cell wall w/ chitin; most multicellular; hetero

Plantae: eukaryote; cell walls of cellulose + chloroplasts; multicellular; auto

Animalia: eukaryote; no cell walls or chloroplasts; multicellular; hetero

Question 14

What are the general characteristics of vertebrates and invertebrates?

Answer 14

A vertebrate is n animal with a backbone or a notochord

An invertebrate is an animal that does not have a backbone; the great majority of animal species are invertebrates

Question 15

How do viruses infect a host cell and reproduce?

Answer 15

Two ways a virus infects and reproduces:

Lytic cycle is where the virus enters and lyses (explodes) the cell, so the new viruses are released to attack other cells

Lysogenic cycle is when the virus integrates its DNA into that of the host cell so when it divides its genetic info replicates with the rest of the cells DNA and can continue to breed virus infected cells for a long time

Question 16

What is sexual reproduction? What is asexual reproduction?

Answer 16

Asexual reproduction: the production of offspring from a single parent, creating a genetically identical offspring

Sexual: the production of offspring from two parents, creating genetically similar children but different

Question 17

Study mitosis and meiosis study deck.

Answer 17

Seriously my dude, do it.

Question 18

What is a gene? What is an allele?

Answer 18

A gene is a unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring

An allele is a specific form of a gene

Question 19

What is a dominant allele? What is a recessive allele?

Answer 19

A dominant allele is an allele that, if present, is always expressed

A recessive allele is an allele that is expressed only if it is not in the presence of the dominant allele

Question 20

What is a homozygous genotype? What is a heterozygous genotype?

Answer 20

A genotype where there are two of the same allele, either dominant or recessive

A genotype where there are two different alleles, one dominant and one recessive

Question 21

What is a phenotype? What is a genotype?

Answer 21

A phenotype is an individuals outward appearance with respect to a specific characteristic

A genotype is the genetic makeup of an individual

Question 22

What is a mono hybrid cross? What is a dihybrid cross?

Answer 22

A monohybrid cross is used to compare with the offspring would look like when you compare only one trait

A dihybrid cross compares two different traits

Question 23

What is a purebred? What is a hybrid?

Answer 23

A purebred is an identical offspring of two genetically identical true-breeding plants

A hybrid is the offspring of two different true-breeding plants

Question 24

What is the F1 generation? What is the F2 generation?

Answer 24

The F1 generation is the first set of offspring from two purebred plants being crossed

The F2 generation is the set of offspring from crossing organisms in the F1 offspring

Question 25

What is incomplete dominance? What is co-dominance?

Answer 25

Heterozygous individuals have an intermediate phenotype (the colors are blended together to form a third color) neither are dominant because neither mask the other Both alleles are expressed fully to produce an offspring with a third mixed phenotype (a black rooster and a white rooster form a black and white rooster)

Question 26

What does multiple alleles mean? Provide an example.

Answer 26

There are more than two alleles for the treat making it a combo of codominant and dominant genetic traits (like blood types) ``` A = IaIa, Iai B= IbIb, Ibi AB= IaIb I= ii ```

Question 27

What are chromosomes? What are chromatids?

Answer 27

Two sister chromatids held together at the centromere that hold genetic information in the form of genes

Question 28

What are the numbers and types of chromosomes in males/females and sex cells?

Answer 28

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, meaning 46 total. Gametes have 23 chromosomes, making them haploid or 2n. 22 are gene determining chromosomes, the 23rd being the sex chromosome

Question 29

What are the different mutations of chromosomes?

Answer 29

Mutations affect a portion of the DNA by changing the sequence Substitution: one nucleotide is replaced Insertion/addition: one nucleotide is added or repeated Deletion: one nucleotide or section is removed Inversion: the sequence is reversed Translocation: a section is moved from one chromosome to another chromosome which is not homologous

Question 30

What are the numbers and types of chromosomes in males/females and sex cells?

Answer 30

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, meaning 46 total. Gametes have 23 chromosomes, making them haploid or 2n. 22 are gene determining chromosomes, the 23rd being the sex chromosome

Question 31

What is non-disjunction?

Answer 31

Non-disjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes to move to opposite poles of the cell during meiosis; results in an abnormal number of chromosomes in the daughter cells Trisomy is a chromosomal abnormality in which there are three homologous chromosomes in place of a homologous pair Monosomy is chromosomal abnormality in which there is a single chromosome in place of a homologous pair

Question 32

What are some chromosomal disorders?

Answer 32

Klinefelter’s: a male has one Y chromosome and two X; causes infertility and feminine traits Turners Syndrome: a female has only one X and no Y, causing infertility but due to the lack of a Y she is still female Down Syndrome: a disorder in which there is three copies of chromosome 21, causing developmental and intellectual issues

Question 33

What are sex linked traits?

Answer 33

Describes an allele that is found on one of the sex chromosome, X or Y, and when passed onto offspring is expressed; always recessive

Question 34

Describe the functions of the digestive system?

Answer 34

1. Ingest (take in nutrients) 2. Digest (break down organic molecules into smaller pieces) 3. Absorb (take digested molecules into cells and transport to body and tissues) 4. Egest (remove waste materials from body)

Question 35

What is the process of digestion? (Mouth to esophagus)

Answer 35

Food enters the mouth where the teeth chews the food. The tongue positions the food on the teeth and roles the food into a bolus. Saliva combines with the food which begins chemical digestion and lubricates the food. The tongue pushes the food down the esophagus, a long tube connecting the mouth and stomach. It has peristalsis, contractions of the muscles, that helps move the food down.

Question 36

What is the process of digestion? (Stomach to egestion)

Answer 36

The food arrives in the stomach which is a muscular bag that stretches as it fills. The stomach contracts to to mix the food with gastric juices (HCl and pepsin which digests proteins). There is the process of chemical and mechanical digestion. Then the food moved to the small intestine. The most part of digestion occurs in the first 25cm if the 7m, in the duodenum. The chyme that leaves the stomach triggers the pancreas to reduce pH. What’s left moved to the 5m wide large intestine where materials are stored long enough that water can be reabsorbed into the body. The waste that’s left, cellulose as it can’t be digested, is egested through the anus.

Question 37

What is the order and function of the respiratory system?

Answer 37

1. Nasal passages (filters, warms and traps dirt) 2. Pharynx (divining point which continues to either trachea or esophagus) 3. Epiglottis (covers trachea on swallowing to prevent food from entering the lungs) 4. Larynx (contains vocal chords) 5. Trachea (passes air from pharynx to lungs; contains rings of cartilage for support to keep it open) 6. Bronchi (pass air from trachea to bronchioles in each lung 7. Bronchioles (branch off the bronchi; pass air from bronchus to alveoli) 8. Alveoli (contain the pulmonary capillaries and are the sites of gas exchange with the circulatory system)

Question 38

What is inhalation? What is exhalation?

Answer 38

Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts and moves downward; Rib muscles contract and cage moves out; Result: increase of volume in chest cavity; lowers air pressure in chest; air moves down the trachea into lungs filling extra space Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards; Ribs relax and moves in and down; Result: decreases volume; increases pressure in chest; air moves out of lungs

Question 39

What is vital lung capacity? What is tidal lung capacity? What is the exploratory reserve?

Answer 39

Tidal volume: the volume of air inhaled or exhaled during a normal, involuntary breath Vital capacity: the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled or exhaled Exploratory reserve volume: the volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation

Question 40

What are the functions of the circulatory system?

Answer 40

1. Delivers O2 from respiratory system 2. Delivers nutrients from digestive system 3. Delivers hormones from endocrine system 4. Delivers chemicals or cells from immune system 5. Delivers metabolic wastes from cells to kidneys and liver 6. In warm-blooded animals, it plays a role in distributing thermal energy throughout body to maintain body temp

Question 41

Explain the flow of blood.

Answer 41

Deoxygenated blood from the body travels through the superior and inferior vena cava into the right atrium. Then blood flows through the atrioventricular valve, or the tricuspid valve, into the right ventricle. Blood then flows through the semilunar valve, or pulmonary valve, into the pulmonary artery and goes to the lungs (blood from left pulmonary artery goes to the left lung, blood from right pulmonary artery goes to the right lung; both pick up O2 and release CO2). The now oxygenated blood returns to the heart through the left and right pulmonary vein. The blood flows from the pulmonary veins into the left atrium then through the atrioventricular valve, or bicuspid valve, into the left ventricle. Blood then flows through the semilunar valve, or aortic valve, into the aorta. Finally blood flows from the aorta to all parts of the body before the cycle repeats.

Question 42

What is the circulatory system made of?

Answer 42

A cellular component and intercellular component (plasma) Plasma is a protein-rich liquid in which blood and platelets are suspended; made of albumins, fibrinogens and globulins

Question 43

What are albumins? What are globulins? What are fibrinogens?

Answer 43

A: determines how much water enters or leaves the bloodstream G: transports lipids, cholesterol, some fat-soluble vitamins and some minerals F: plays a critical role in blood clotting

Question 44

What does the cellular component consist of?

Answer 44

Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets (cell fragments produced from stem cells; play vital role in blood clotting)

Question 45

What are red blood cells? What do they do and where do they form?

Answer 45

Erythrocytes, biconcave disks Carry O2 to body and CO2 to lungs Formed from stem cells in bone marrow

Question 46

What are white blood cells? What do they do and where are they formed?

Answer 46

Leukocytes Aid in fighting against harmful bacteria Also formed in bone marrow 2 kinds: granular and agranular

Question 47

What are granular leukocytes? What are agranular leukocytes?

Answer 47

Have granules in cytoplasm Neutrophils: first to travel to site of infection; fights microorganisms Eosinophils: releases enzymes during infection, allergic reaction and asthma Basophils: relaxes enzymes during allergic reaction and asthma Agranular specialized for engulfing bacteria and other microorganisms; use phagocytosis to destroy harmful bacteria and substances (engulfs it and releases enzymes to break it down making pus) Lymphocytes: produce antibodies that attack microorganisms or their toxins Monocytes: clean up bacteria, dead cells and other debris in blood and tissues

Question 48

What are arteries? What are arterioles? How are they controlled by nervous system?

Answer 48

Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart Lead to arterioles which are small arteries which can be controlled by nervous system because they have smooth muscle walls Vasodilation and vasoconstriction

Question 49

What are capillaries?

Answer 49

The smallest blood vessels at the end of arterioles Role is to supply oxygen and nutrients

Question 50

How are capillaries controlled?

Answer 50

They don’t have smooth muscle walls so they can’t be controlled but pre-capillary sphincters serve the same purpose

Question 51

What are venules? What are veins? What do veins do?

Answer 51

The smallest veins that are attached at the end of capillaries. Form together to create veins. Carry deoxygenated blood away from organs and tissues and back to the heart

Question 52

What are the two numbers on the blood pressure readings?

Answer 52

Systole: Diastole:

Question 53

What is the sinoatrial, or SA, node?

Answer 53

A specific region in the right atrium that sends an electrical signal to both atria, causing them to contract in sync and push blood into ventricles

Question 54

What is the atrioventricular, or AV, node?

Answer 54

A specific region in the right atrium that receives a signal from an SA node when it sends its impulse, triggering the AV node to send out its electrical signal. This signal is sent to the Purkinje fibers which run down the septum. This causes both ventricles to contract and send blood to lungs and tissues.

Question 55

Explain the concept of surface area to volume ratio in various systems.

Answer 55

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Question 56

What is the composition of blood and transfusion complications?

Answer 56

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Question 57

Who is Lamarck? Who is Darwin?

Answer 57

Lamarck compared current species with fossils to support evolution and determined line of decent; species in line become better adapted and more complex over time; giraffes Went traveling to South America, specifically Argentina, Darwin found new species that looked like many of the species found in South America; also found fossils resembling current species in the same area; found his finches (13 species of finches) Created the theory of evolution (the origin of species)

Question 58

What is natural selection?

Answer 58

The way in which nature favors the reproductive success of some individuals within a population over others (some individuals are more likely to pass their genes along than others)

Question 59

What is artificial selection?

Answer 59

Directive breeding in which individuals that exhibit a particular trait are chosen as parents of the next generation (aka artificial breeding)

Question 60

What is sexual selection?

Answer 60

The favoring of any trait that specifically enhances the mating success; leads to features that don’t aid in survival but enhances mating success

Question 61

How can we use fossils?

Answer 61

Fossils- ancient remains, impressions or traces of an organism that have been preserved in rocks or other mineral deposits Fossils allow us a snapshot of early species; helps us understand where new variations have arisen; suggest transitions between species

Question 62

Explain more about Darwin.

Answer 62

Travelled on the HMS Beagle to the coast of South America where found his finches and started his theory Darwin creates a biogeography called “On the Origin of Species”

Question 63

What are vestigial features?

Answer 63

A non-functioning, or only marginally functioning, structure that is homologous to a full functioning structure in closely related species Ex: whales have tiny hip bones and leg bones

Question 64

What are homologous features? What are analogous features?

Answer 64

H: A structure that performs the same function as another but is not similar in origin or anatomical structure A: A structure with a common evolutionary origin that may serve different functions in modern species

Question 65

What are the types of natural selection?

Answer 65

Directional selection (Favors an increase or decrease in the value of a trait from the current population average (if white butterfly is more likely to be eaten, number of white butterflies decreases)) Stabilizing selection (Selection against individuals exhibiting traits that deviate from the current population (keeping the population)) Disruptive selection (Favors two or more variations of a trait that differs from the current population average (changing the population)) Sexual selection (Intra- male to male competition, inter- female choice)

Question 66

What is the bottleneck effect?

Answer 66

Dramatic reduction in population size, usually resulting in significant genetic drift, due to catastrophe Can happen due to overhunting, habitat loss, or natural disaster Ones that survive only pass on those genes which makes them vulnerable to disease and low reproductive success

Question 67

What is the founders effect?

Answer 67

A small number of individuals separate from their original population and establish a new population The new population can have more or less variation depending on how many go over with the variation

Question 68

What is speciation?

Answer 68

The formation of new and distinct species Can be prevented using isolating mechanisms like prezygotic and postzygotic mechanisms

Question 69

What are the prezygotic mechanisms?

Answer 69

1. Behavioral isolation (courtship rituals to find a mate. ex birds of paradise) 2. Temporal isolation (different species breed at different times) 3. Ecological isolation (similar species may inhabit different habitats within a region) 4. Mechanical isolation (differences in physical features that make two species unable to mate) 5. Gamete isolation (male gametes unable to recognize and fertilize egg cells of another species)

Question 70

What are postzygotic mechanisms?

Answer 70

1. Zygotic morality (mating and fertilization possible but zygote is unable to develop) 2. Hybrid inviability (hybrid develops but cannot survive to maturity; may die before birth may die before reaching maturity) 3. Hybrid infertility (hybrid remains healthy and viable but are sterile therefor unable to make more of the hybrid ex mules)

Question 71

What is divergent evolution? What is convergent evolution?

Answer 71

Divergent: The large scale evolution of a group into many different species to fill ecological niches Convergent: Occurs when 2 different species evolve to fill similar ecological niches (cause of analogous features)

Question 72

What is co-evolution?

Answer 72

Process in which a species evolves in response to the evolution of another species (ex: plants evolve hard shells to protect against animals, causing herbivores to develop more powerful jaws) An evolutionary arms race

Question 73

How have humans evolved?

Answer 73

Evidence: shape of skull, brow ridges, tools, teeth, etc ``` Australopithecus: 1st form of humans Homo-habilis: handy man Homo-erectus: upright (use of back legs) Neanderthalis: replaces by following Homo sapiens: wise man ```

Question 74

Describe the differences between monocots and dicots. (5 each)

Answer 74

Both angiosperms Monocots: vascular bundles scattered throughout the stem; produce one seed leaf; flower parts in multiples of three; narrow leaves w/ parallel veins; fibrous root system Dicots: vascular bundles in ring patterns; two seed leaves; flower parts in multiples of four or five; broad leaves w/ branching veins; tap root system

Question 75

What are roots?

Answer 75

Anchor plants to the ground Absorb water and minerals from soil Transport materials upwards to the rest of the plant Storage of food (starch) made in stems and leaves

Question 76

What are stems?

Answer 76

Support leaves Transport materials b/w roots and leaves like water and sugar Storage of food (sugars) May be photosynthetic

Question 77

What are the different kinds of stems?

Answer 77

Herbaceous stems: green in color, contain chlorophyll, undergo photosynthesis, die back in winter Woody stems: found in trees and shrubs, don’t die back in winter, annual rings used to determine age

Question 78

What are leaves?

Answer 78

Main function is photosynthesis (CO2+H2O=glucose+O2) Green color due to chlorophyll pigment which absorbs energy and reflects green

Question 79

What is Xylem? What is Phloem?

Answer 79

Types of vascular tissues X: transports water and minerals upwards P: transports sugars with some water downwards