Biology Combined Flashcards
What is DNA?
deoxyribonucleic acid
genes are segments of DNA
DNA twists up to form chromosomes
Found in the nucleus of our cells.
DNA is composed of basic subunits called
nucleotides
The 3 parts of a Nucleotide
deoxyribose
phosphate group
nitrogenous base
The 4 nitrogen different bases
adenine
thymine
guanine
cytosine
the bonding pattern for the nitrogen bases is
A bonds with T
C bonds with G
the shape of a DNA molecule is a
double helix
sides/backbone of ladder
phosphate (connected by strong and covalent bonds) and sugar
Rungs of ladder
nitrogenous bases (held together by weak hydrogen bonds)
what is the building blocks of a DNA called?
Nucleotide
All organisms contain DNA with the same 4 types of nucleotides. So then how is life all different.
A-T-C-G (GATTACA) Can be rearranged to create different instructions for different traits. Similar to how we can make different words out of our 26 letter alphabet. (DNA IS complementary)
Image of a nucleotide.
How many cells make up a typical human body?
Trillions
Why is having more cells an advantage?
The more cells an organism has the more complex it is.
What conclusions can you come to from this image?
70% of a cell is made of water
30% contains varying molecules
Not all cells are the same. What are some things that can vary about cells?
Organelles: because they are tiny organs that can perform different jobs in a cell.
What cell is this? What is the structure?
this is Skeletal Muscle Cell
Structure -
* long thin shape
*multiple nuclei per cell
*lots of mitochondria
What cell is this? What is the function of this cell?
Function-
*bands contract and stretch to manage the length of the cell.
*Control the many jobs of the long cell.
*Provides a site for energy production.
What is this cell? What is the structure of this cell?
Red blood cell.
*Structure-
*Smooth and round
* Flattened disc shape
*Hemoglobin only
(No nucleus)
What is this cell? What is the function of this cell?
Function -
*Fits through small vessels
*Increases surface area to volume ratio.
*Carries oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
What is this cell? What is the structure of this cell?
Fat cell
Structure-
*Nucleus and other organelles pushed to edges of the cell.
*Cells compacted together
* large vacuole
What is this cell? what is the function of this cell?
Function
*Fat storage takes up most of the cell’s volume
*provides padding and insulation
*Stored fat services as an energy source in times at salvation.
what kind of cell is this? What kind of structure is this?
Plant leaf cell
Structure-
*Rectangular shape chloroplasts found near the edges
*Thick Cell wall
*Vacuole
What kind of cell is this? What is the function?
Function -
*Captures light for photosynthesis
*Gives support
*stores water and keeps plants rigid.
what kind of cell is this? what is the structure of this cell?
Plant root cell
Structure -
*hair-like projections extending from the cell wall
*No chloroplasts
*Large vacuole
what kind of this cell? what is the function of this cell?
Function-
*Increase surface area to absorb water and nutrients in the soil.
*Can not absorb sunlight.
*Store nutrients
what kind of cell is this? what is the structure of this cell?
Osteocytes
Structure-
*extensions from cell membranes
*Ribosomes
*Golgi apparatus
what cell is this? what is the function of this cell?
Function-
*Communicate by sending chemical messages
*Create and secrete proteins to strengthen the tissue.
*Package minerals and compounds.
what kind of cell is this? what is the structure of this cell?
Neuron
Structure-
*synaptic cleft between cells
*cell body with specialized extensions (dendrites and axons)
what kind of cell is this? what is the function of this cell?
function -
*Pass signals to each other
*receives information
*Transmits info to another cell
What is the main way that scientists group cells?
Scientist categorize them by how their genetic material is packaged.
Prokaryotik vs. Euekaryotik
What type of cells are you made of?
Euekaryotic
They are catalysts. They sped up to a rate of a chemical reaction by reducing the activation energy.
Enzymes
strengthens cell, tissues, organs and more. Nature can build materials that are very strong.
Structural Proteins
allows cells to communicate with each other. Signals, receptors, and relay proteins. Work together to get information from the outside or a cell to the inside.
Signaling Proteins
These proteins bind DNA to turn genes on and off. The active genes are used to build proteins.
Regulatory Proteins
move molecules and nutrients around the boy in and out of cells.
Transport Proteins
these proteins help us learn about our environment. They help us detect light, sound, touch, smell, taste, pain and heat.
Sensory Proteins
These proteins keep cells moving and changing shape. They also transport components around inside cells.
Motor Proteins
these proteins help organisms fight infection, heal damaged tissue, and evade predators.
Defense Proteins
these proteins store nutrients and use energy-rich molecules for later use.
Storage Proteins
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid\
Thynine
Nitrogenous base that pairs with Adenine\
Hydrogen Bonds
weak bonds\
Function
work or operate in a proper or particular way.
Organelle
A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell\
signaling proteins
allows cells to communicate with each other\
defense protein
Help organisms fight infection- heal damaged tissue and evade predators.\
Tissue
A group of similar cells that perform the same function.\
Nucleotide
a monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar- a phosphate group- and a nitrogenous base.\
Adenine
The base that pairs with Thymine in DNA\
Covalent bonds
sharing of electrons\strong bonds
Structure
The arrangement of parts in an organism\
Multicellular
made of many cells\
regulatory proteins
Bind DNA to turn genes on and off\
Storage protein
Store nutrients and energy-rich molecules for later use.\
Organism
A living thing\
Nitrogen bases
The chemicals that make up the rungs of the DNA ladder. A-T and C-G match.\
Guanine
The base that pairs with Cytosine in DNA\
Nucleus
Center of an cell\
Chromosome
organized strands of DNA found in the cell nucleus.\
Unicellular
Made of a single cell\
transport proteins
move molecules and nutrients around the body and in and out of cells\
Monomer
a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer.\
Deoxyribose sugar
Makes up the backbone of the DNA \
Cytosine
The base that pairs with Guanine with DNA\
the rungs (inside) of the DNA
nitrogenous bases\
Gene
A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait\
Enzymes
Catalysts for chemical reactions in living things. They speed up the rate of chemical reaction by reducing the activation energy.\
Sensory protein
Help us learn about our environment. Touch, smell, feel, pain and heat.
amino acids
building blocks of proteins\
Phosphate
in backbone of DNA\
complimentary base pairs
A- T\ C-G
the backbone (outside) of the DNA
deoxyribose and phosphate groups\
cell
The basic unit of structure and function in living things\
structural proteins
strengthen and protect cells and tissues\
motor proteins
keeps cells moving and changing shape. They also transport components around inside cells.\
Protein
CHON made of amino acids}
A gene is a segment of DNA that determines specific traits. Different sequences of DNA determine the different traits.
For every one phosphate molecule within a chromosome there are _________ number of nucleotides.
Equal
Explain why the locations for the weak hydrogen bonds and the strong covalent bonds help DNA function efficiently.
Strong - Support and protect the DNA Weak - Allows the DNA to be open and used.
What molecules make up the backbone in DNA? What is the function of the backbone?
Backbone - Phosphate & Deoxyribose Sugar Function - protect the bases inside it and to prevent them from being damaged by the environment.
What would you expect to be similar and different if you compare a chromosome from one human being to the same chromosome from another human.
The structure is similar but the sequence of DNA would be different.
Cell Type
Neuron Important Cell Structures and organelles Functions Type of protein
Important Cell structure and organelles: Cell body specialized extension Functions: Pass signals to each other. Receives information. Transmits to another cell. Type of protein: Signal
Red blood cell Important Cell Structures and organelles Functions Type of protein
Important Cell Structures and organelles: Hemoglobin only. Smooth and round. Flattened disc Functions: Fits through small vessels. Increases surface to volume ratio. Carries oxygen and carbon dioxide Type of protein: Transport
Sperm Cell Important Cell Structures and organelles Functions Type of protein
Important Cell Structures and organelles: Flattened sack called the Acrosome. Functions: Passes the necessary biological information to produce a new organism. Type of protein: Motor
Skeletal Important Cell Structures and organelles Functions Type of protein
Important Cell Structures and organelles: Long thin shaped. multiple nuclei per cell and lots of mitochondria. Functions: Bands contract and stretch to manage the length of the cell. Provides site for energy production. Type of protein: Motor
Plant Leaf Cell Important Cell Structures and organelles Functions Type of protein
Important Cell Structures and organelles: Thick cell wall and Vacuole. Chloroplast found near edges Functions: Captures light for photosynthesis. Gives support, stores water, and keeps plant rigid Type of protein: structural and storage
What factors determine the structure of a protein?
- The number of Amino Acids. 2. The type of Amino Acids Present 3. The order of Amino Acids present
Identify the nine types of proteins and provide a brief explanation for their general function. 1
Enzymes - They speed up the rate of chemical reaction by reducing activation energy.
Identify the nine types of proteins and provide a brief explanation for their general function. 2
Sensory protein - helps us learn about our environment. Touch, smell, feel, pain, and heat.
Identify the nine types of proteins and provide a brief explanation for their general function. 3
Motor protein - keeps cell moving and changing shape.
Identify the nine types of proteins and provide a brief explanation for their general function. 4
Transport proteins - Move molecules and nutrients around the body and in and out of cells.
Identify the nine types of proteins and provide a brief explanation for their general function. 5
Signaling proteins - allows cells to communicate with each other.
Identify the nine types of proteins and provide a brief explanation for their general function. 6
Defense proteins - helps organisms fight infection - heal damage tissue and evade predators.
Identify the nine types of proteins and provide a brief explanation for their general function. 7
Regulatory proteins - bind DNA to turn genes on and off.
Identify the nine types of proteins and provide a brief explanation for their general function. 8
Storage proteins - Store nutrients and energy rich molecules.
Identify the nine types of proteins and provide a brief explanation for their general function. 9
Structural proteins - strengthen and protects cell and tissues.
What types of proteins would you expect to find alot of in white blood cells?
Defense proteins and signaling proteins.
Explain the role of both DNA and Proteins in Disease.
The DNA codes for specific traits. The proteins help to protect the DNA from Damage. Damaged DNA can cause different types of diseases.
Support the following claim: Proteins are the most important type of Macromolecule in an organism. Provide at least 3 lines of evidence as support.
Proteins support the life of a cell. 1. defense: keep invaders away. 2. Transport: brings nutrients to the cell. 3. Signaling: Allows the cells to communicate with each other.
would you expect all of the levels of hierarchy to be the same for different types of cells? Explain what could be different.
They all have the levels but they have different amounts of each type.
What do you notice about the DNA sequences from the two different cells from person #1?
They are both the same. They have the same genes but the placement is different.
how would you describe the structure of a gene?
little parts of DNA on the chromosome
How would you describe the function of a gene?
Gene tells what its job is and its purpose.
Which gene(s) would be used (need to be on) in the skin cell? Gene 1 (yellow) -produces pigment for skin color Gene 2 (blue) - controls production of acid Gene 3 (Green) - controls the production of mucus Gene4 (red) -controls the number of hair follicles per cell.
Gene 1, Gene 4 (on) Gene 2, Gene 3 (off)
which gene(s) would be used (need to be on) in the stomach cell? Gene 1 (yellow) -produces pigment for skin color Gene 2 (blue) - controls production of acid Gene 3 (Green) - controls the production of mucus Gene4 (red) -controls the number of hair follicles per cell.
Gene 2, Gene 3 (on) Gene 1, Gene 4(off)
Explain what this chart means DNA>PROTEIN>TRAIT
A sequence of DNA specifying the sequence of amino acids of a particular protein involved in the expression of a trait.
Same or different genes? Skin color
Different
Same or different genes? The production of acid
Same
Same or different genes? The controlling of the mucus
Same
Same or different genes? Hair follicles
Different
Proteins Made up of chains of _______
Amino acids
Proteins we have _____ different amino acids in our body, some our body makes, and some we get through our diet.
20
Proteins different combinations of amino acids result in _____-
Different proteins
Proteins different proteins produced in your cells mean difference in ______
Physical traits
Ribonucleic acid Contains the ____ and the base ____
Sugar ribose; Uracil
Ribonucleic acid found in both the ____ (transcription) and in the ______ (translation)
Nucleus; Cytoplasm
Ribonucleic Acid Usually is _____ stranded
Single
Ribonucleic Acid What is in DNA?
Nucleic acid, double-stranded; deoxyribose, G,A,C,T
Ribonucleic Acid What is in RNA?
Nucleic acid, single-stranded, ribose, G,A,C,U
Types of RNA Long strands of RNA nucleotides that are formed _______ to one strand of DNA
Complementary
Ribosomal RNA *Associates with ______ in the cytoplasm
Proteins to form ribosomes
Transfer RNA smaller segments of RNA nucleotides that ______ amino acids to the ______
Transport; Ribosome
Transcription (Part 1 in the nucleus)
Through transcription, the DNA code is _____________
transferred to mRNA in the nucleus.
DNA is ______ in the nucleus _____ binds to a specific section where mRNA will be synthesized (Created)
Unzipped; RNA polymerase
DNA in photosynthesis is in the _____
RNA is in the what____
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
mRNA is made from the _____
existing DNA strand
Transcription
Step 1.
DNA unzips with the help of RNA ______
Polymerase
Transcription
Step 2: RNA bases in the nucleus start ________________________
bonding to their complementary pair
A-U
C-G
*This only occurs on one side of the DNA that has the gene
Transcription
Step 3: The new mRNA molecule ________ and heads out of the nucleus to find a _____
breaks off the DNA strand; ribosome
Translation:
Translation the mRNA sequence into a _____________ that _____ up into a functional _______
A string of amino acids that folds up into a functional protein.
The information contained in mRNA is in the form of a triplet code:
The three bases together us called a _____
The first codon in every RNA strand is always _____
The last codon of every RNA strand is a __________
*There are several different stop codons.
Codon
AUG
Stop Codon
Steps in a translation (cytoplasm)
Step 1-
______ enters the cytoplasm from the nucleus and finds a ribosome to link with.
Step 2-
*The ribosome attached to an AUG (start codon) on mRNA
Step 3-
The first tRNA binds. the tRNA has a _____ which binds to the mRNA codon.
Step 4-
the tRNA binds a
____________
mRNA
anticodon
a specific amino acid
mRNA is made during (transcription/translation)
transcription
mRNA is made in the (Cytoplasm/ Nucleus)
Nucleus
DNA is located in the (Nucleus/Cytoplasm)
Nucleus
(mRNA/DNA) is used to carry the genetic code from DNA to the ribosomes.
mRNA
(DNA/RNA) uses uracil instead of thymine.
RNA
(RNA/amino acids) make up a protein.
Amino acids
Transcription takes place in the (Nucleus/ribosome)
Nucleus
tRNA is used in (translation/transcription)
Translation
Proteins are made at the (nucleus/ribosome)
Ribosome
(tRNA/mRNA) attaches the amino acids into a chain
mRNA
tRNA is found in the (nucleus/cytoplasm)
Cytoplasm
(Translation/Transcription) converts mRNA into a protein.
Translation
Translation takes place in the (Cytoplasm/Nucleus)
Cytoplasm
(DNA/RNA) can leave the nucleus
RNA
(Translation/Transcription) converts DNA into mRNA.
Transcription
Ribose Sugar
DNA
RNA
Or Both
RNA
Has the most nucleotides in the molecule
DNA
RNA
Or both
DNA
Made of nucleotides
DNA
RNA
Or Both
Both DNA and RNA
Where does the process of Translation take place
Cytoplasm
What molucule unzips the DNA Strand?
RNA Polymerase
The correct order of protein synthesis is transcription at the ribosome then translation in the nucleus.
True or False
False
Define the following:
DNA –
Nucleotide-
Genetic Code-
DNA- A double-stranded molecule made of nucleotides. Contains the information needed to guide the body while making proteins for specific jobs and traits
Nucleotide- The subunit that makes DNA and RNA. (number 4 in the image)
Genetic Code- The order of DNA nucleotides and thus the A, C, T and G’s will ultimately determine the order of amino acids in proteins. This order results in a specific shape and thus a specific function.
Transcription is the process of copying a gene in the nucleus.
True or False
True
What are the three parts of a nucleotide?
DNA nucleotides are composed of a sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate and one of four nitrogen bases: A, T, C, and G.
RNA nucleotides are composed of a sugar called ribose, a phosphate and one of four nitrogen bases: A, U, C, and G.
Where do we find hydrogen bonds? Why is the location of the hydrogen bonds important?
Hydrogen bonds hold the strands of the DNA together between the complimentary bases. Hydrogen bonds are a weaker bond. They are easily broken when the DNA unzips. We would not want the DNA to separate anywhere other than in the center. This way the genetic code (the order of bases) stays preserved.
What component of the DNA molecule (nitrogen base, sugar, or phosphate) allows variation (gives different traits to different people) within a population? Explain.
The order of DNA nucleotides and thus the A, C, T and G’s will ultimately determine the order of different sequences of amino acids in proteins. The amino acid order results in a specific shape and thus a specific function.
On the image to the right, label the following:
- DNA Template Strand C
- Non-Template Strand A
- RNA Polymerase B
- mRNA Strand D
Put the following steps of transcription in the correct order from 1 (first) to 4 (last):
_____2___ DNA is unzipped by the RNA Polymerase
_____3___ mRNA strand is made
_____4___ mRNA leaves the nucleus
_____1___ RNA Polymerase connects to the DNA strand
Where does transcription occur in the cell?
Inside the nucleus of the cell.
What is the product (made) in transcription?
mRNA
What is the purpose of transcription? (THINK ABOUT: Why do we make mRNA instead of using the original DNA?
DNA needs to be conserved in the nucleus to make new cells. mRNA is just a short segment compared to DNA and it will make traveling to the ribosome much easier. We also only need some of the DNA (genes) in each cell to make proteins.
Where does translation occur in the cell?
At the ribosome in the cytoplasm
Place the following statements in order from 1 (first) to 4 (last).
_____4___ The ribosome moves to the next codon
_____2___ The tRNA carrying an amino acid binds to the start codon
____1___ The ribosome attaches to the start codon
____3___ A tRNA carrying an amino acid binds to the next codon after the start codon
What is the product (made) in translation?
A protein (chain of amino acids)
what is the importance of this molecule? What does it do?
The protein is the workhorse of the body. It will become every part of your body. Each protein has a unique structure therefor a unique function. Proteins do all of the jobs required to maintain life!
TRANSCRIPTION
Location(s) in the Cell
Is DNA directly involved (yes or no)
Type of RNA involved in the process
What are the bases that pair together?
Nucleus
Yes
mRNA
DNA ATCG
mRNA UAGC
TRANSLATION
Location(s) in the Cell
Is DNA directly involved (yes or no)
Type of RNA involved in the process
What are the bases that pair together?
Ribosome/cytoplasm/outside nucleus
No
tRNA, rRNA, mRNA
A-U, C-G
Explain what happens when a mutation occurs.
A mutation will alter the macromolecule (DNA). A nitrogen base (A, C, T, G) is inserted, deleted or altered (C to G for example)
Explain how a mutation could affect each of the following levels of hierarchy. You may choose a specific mutation you are familiar with such as Cystic Fibrosis or sickle cell to help you explain the following outcomes of a mutation:
Protein Structure- The type, order, amount of amino acids can change. This will change the protein structure.
Protein Function- Because the structure is different the function will be different- not allowing the protein to do its intended job.
Cells where the gene is on:
This cell will have incorrect proteins and will not function properly.
Organ where the gene is on: This organ will have the wrong proteins to do its job. A person could die depending on the mutation.
An organism in whom gene is on: The organism with a mutation in a cell that is in an organ that is in an organ system in that organism will not function properly. They will not be able to carry out the jobs that maintain life and eventually the organism will be affected or even pass away.
Trait
A characteristic that an organism has that is inherited from their parents.
Allele
a letter used to represent a trait. ex: A or a
Dominant Allele
shows over the recessive allele Aa, capital letter
Recessive allele
Does not show over the dominant allele. It is masked. Only will show “aa”
Genotype
Combination of alleles inherited from your parents ex: AA, Aa, aa
Autosomal traits
Genes located on chromosomes pairs 1-22
Sex-linked traits
-Genes located on the sex chromosomes x or y #23 -Inherited differently between boys and girls -Sex-Linked dominant or recessive
Meiosis
Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms
Recessive
Genes that are expressed in offspring only when inherited not masked from both parents, i.e. When Inherited from one parent.
Mitosis
division of the nucleus
Fertilization
Fusion of an egg and sperm cell
Homologous Chromosomes
Chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes and the same structure
Non-Homologous Chromosomes
chromosomes that are not members of the same pair.
Gametes
reproductive cells
Sister Chromatids
Replicated forms of a chromosome joined together by the centromere and eventually separated during mitosis or meiosis.
Centromere
the region of the chromosome that holds the two sister chromatids together during mitosis.
Independent Assortment
Chromosomes will arrange in a different pattern each time. (Mixes the mom and dad chromosomes)
Crossing Over
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids.
Allele
Different forms of a gene
Recessive
An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present
Spindle Fibers
Protein structures which move the chromosomes during cell division.
Haploid
having a single set of unpaired chromosomes
Diploid
a cell that contains two haploid sets of chromosomes
Homozygous
having two identical alleles for a trait
Heterozygous
having two different alleles for a trait
Non-disjunction
the uneven division of chromosomes during meiosis I or II that results in cells w/ more or less chromosomes than normal. *Not a mutation
Jean Lamark
-Evolution occurs through the use and disuse of physical features. -features will increase by use or decrease by disuse . -these traits are then passed down to their offspring. -Through evolution happens during a life time.
Charles Darwin
-Characteristics among members of a species vary. -Only individuals with the characteristics suited to the environmental will survive to reproduce. -Overtime those characteristics will increase in population.
Process of Natural Selection
Process by which populations (not individuals) change in response to their environments.
4 requirements
Genetic Variation Overproduction of offspring Struggle for existence Survival of the fittest.
Genetic Variation
Exists in a population through… Meiosis- Genetic variation can be increased during crossing over and independent assortment. Mutations- Can be beneficial Genetic Recombination- Organisms pass on traits to offspring.
Overpopulation/overproduction
-when conditions are favorable organisms tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support. -Resources are no longer abundant enough to support every individual in a population competition occurs.
Struggle for Existence
-Every organism must constantly fight for limited resources and escape from predators in order to survive long enough to reproduce.
Survival of the Fittest
-individuals best suited/adapted to their environment have the best chances for survival. -reproduce more often and pass those good traits on to their offspring. -increased frequency of best traits
Fitness def
The ability to survive and reproduce in a particular movement.
Selective pressure
The environment factor that effects an organisms ability to survive and/ or reproduce in an environment.
