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Personal Study > Biological Psychology by James W. Kalat > Flashcards

Biological Psychology by James W. Kalat Flashcards

1
Q

What is Polarization within neurons?

A

Polarization is the difference in electrical charge between the inside surface of the membrane and the outside surface of the membrane. Hyperpolarization is a large difference (deactivated) whereas Depolarization is a small difference (activated)

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2
Q

What is the purpose of the Sodium-Potassium Pump?

A

Maintaining resting potential (polarization), by removing sodium and attracting Potassium into the cell.

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3
Q

What is the All or None Law?

A

Action Potentials cannot become stronger or weaker depending on how much stimulation is applied; We can only increase or decrease the frequency at which they fire.

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4
Q

What is the purpose of the Myelin Sheath?

A

It speeds up the movement of positive charge through Saltatory Conduction

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5
Q

What is the Refractory Period?

A

The period during which the neuron cannot fire because the Sodium-Potassium Pump has not yet returned the neuron to resting potential.

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6
Q

What are the concepts of Temporal Summation and Spatial Summation with regards to the Synapse?

A

Temporal Summation refers to activating several neurons multiple times in short succession, which increases the odds of a neurotransmitter crossing the gap. Spatial Summation also does this by activating several neurons in similar areas.

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7
Q

What do amino acids produce within the body?

A

Neurotransmitters

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8
Q

What holds neurotransmitters together?

A

Vesicles

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9
Q

What are the four elements of a synapse?

A

Dendrites
Somas
Axons
Presynaptic Terminal

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10
Q

What are the differences between Ionotropic and Metabotropic Activation and the sensations they produce?

A

Ionotropic Activation refers to stimulation through electrical charge. Metabotropic Activation sends a messenger to the postsynaptic neuron that creates more enduring sensations, like pain and pleasure.

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11
Q

What are Neuropetides? What is their function?

A

Neurotransmitters produced by the soma and sent by the dendrite. They are responsible for long-term changes in behaviour, such as hunger and thirst.

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12
Q

What is the COMT?

A

The enzyme responsible for breaking down used neurotransmitters so that can be used again by the cell.

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13
Q

What is the function of the Pituitary Gland?

A

Creation and dispersion of hormones.

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14
Q

What are the differences and similarities between Grey and White Matter?

A

Grey Matter is located within the Brain, is unmyelinated and contains densely packed neurons. White Matter is located within Spinal Cord, contains myelinated sheaths and also contains densely packed neurons.

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15
Q

What are the three brain structures that create the Hindbrain?

A

The Medulla, the Pons and the Cerebellum

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16
Q

What is the function of the Thalamus?

A

Comprehension of sensory information; Can be used for focus and magnification. It is also used for regulation of muscle movement.

Parkinson’s reduces activity, resulting in rigidity. Huntington’s increases activity, resulting in writhing and body spasms.

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17
Q

What is the function of the Hypothalamus?

A

Widespread activation within the body related to temperature, hunger, thirst and exhaustion. It is closely related to Circadian Rhythm and used for regulation of the body.

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18
Q

What is the function of the Amygdala?

A

Closely related to the process of learning new fears, being afraid and processing emotions.

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19
Q

What is the function of the Basal Ganglia, regarding learning and movement?

A

The Basal Ganglia are used to learn patterns subconsciously and develop procedural memories. It is also used within voluntary and spontaneous movement.

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20
Q

What is the function of the Hippocampus?

A

The Hippocampus is responsible for declarative and episodic memories. It does this by commanding activation like a manager would in a company. Also, the Hippocampus unlearns fears produced by the Amygdala.

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21
Q

What is the function of the Ventricles?

A

They provide nutrition to the brain by carrying fluids to the brain. They also cushion the brain.

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22
Q

What are the three functions of the Prefrontal (Cerebral) Cortex?

A

Muscles and Movement (Most Posterior)
Working Memories and Emotions (Medial)
Decisions and Evaluations (Most Anterior)

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23
Q

What does Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) measure?

A

Dilation of blood vessels and expenditure of oxygen within the brain.

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24
Q

What is the purpose of DNA?

A

DNA produces the blueprints for Ribonucleic Acid, which provides the blueprints for proteins.

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25
Q

Which biological sex has matching X Chromosomes?

A

Female

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26
Q

What are mutations?

A

Deletions, duplications or changes within our DNA

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27
Q

What is the function of Acetyl Groups and Methyl Groups?

A

Acetyl Groups facilitate the expression of certain genes whereas Methyl Groups decrease the expression of certain genes.

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28
Q

What is the function of Homeobox Genes?

A

They provide the blueprints for creation of the brain during fetal stages of pregnancy.

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29
Q

What are the five stages of neural development in the fetus?

A 
Proliferation (Creating new cells)
Differentiation (Creating new functions for cells)
Migration (Movement of cells)
Synaptogenesis (Creation of synapses)
Myelination (Creation of sheaths)
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30
Q

How does the brain ensure we have the correct amount of synapses for each neuron?

A

We begin with too many and Neural Darwinism removes the excess over time.

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31
Q

What is Diaschisis?

A

Destruction of neurons caused by other neurons failing to stimulate a neuron, likely because they have also been destroyed.

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32
Q

What is the pathway of structures that work together to create our perception of vision? What is the function of each station?

A 
Rods or Cones (Dark and bright vision respectively)
Bipolar Cells (Transmission of charge)
Amacrine Cells (Regulation of other cells)
Ganglion Cells (Conversion from light to electricity)
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33
Q

Where does 70% of our vision occur and why?

A

Within the fovea, where every receptor has exactly one Midget Ganglion Cell and Bipolar Cell. This means that vision is much clearer when we look directly at our target.

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34
Q

What structures allow us to see colours?

A

Trichromatic Theory states that each receptor is sensitive to wavelength, meaning that some receptors stimulate areas of the brain responsible for colour and some do not.

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35
Q

What are the three types of Ganglion Cells?

A

Parvocellular (Small and in the fovea)
Magnocellular (Large)
Koniocellular (Small and everywhere else)

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36
Q

What are the two pathways from the Occipital Lobe that aid vision?

A

The Dorsal Stream goes through the Parietal Lobe and helps to guide movement and find the location of surrounding items. The Ventral Stream goes through the Temporal Lobe and helps to identify the name of surrounding items.

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37
Q

What structure help us to recognise a familiar face?

A

Fusiform Gyrus

38
Q

What three bones vibrate against the Cochlea to produce audition?

A

The Hammer, Anvil and Stirrup

39
Q

What produces audition with regards to events in the Cochlea?

A

Fluids within the Cochlea are disrupted by soundwaves, which pushes hair cells that create electrical signals within the brain. The location of moved cells and the frequency at which neurons fire are important for perception of pitch.

40
Q

What are three elements that create the perception of directional sound?

A 
Arrival Time (Difference in time of arrival)
Sound Shadows (Difference in loudness)
Phase Difference (Difference in pitch)
41
Q

What is Vestibular Sensation?

A

The process by which humans naturally perceive the rotation of their head.

42
Q

Where is pain processed?

A

The Anterior Cingulate Cortex

43
Q

Where does information for smell and taste converge?

A

The Endopiriform Cortex

44
Q

What are the four basic flavours of food?

A

Sweet
Salty
Bitter
Sour

45
Q

What are the three types of muscles in the body?

A

Skeletal, Smooth and Cardiac.

46
Q

What two methods do humans use to move muscles and what are their differences?

A

Slow Twitches require oxygen that we can supply steadily by breathing, meaning they do not fatigue. Fast Twitches can move faster and do not need oxygen, but need oxygen to recover, meaning they fatigue.

47
Q

What are the two pathways from the Motor Cortex to the muscles?

A

The Lateral Corticospinal Tract carries signals straight to the muscles, mainly in the hands and feet. The Medial Corticospinal Tract goes through the Spinal Cord and creates movements in both sides of the body.

48
Q

What functions does the Cerebellum serve?

A

The Cerebellum is active during tasks that require aim, timing, balance and attention.

49
Q

What structure located within the Hypothalamus is responsible for Circadian Rhythm?

A

The Superchiasmatic Nucleus, which has a connection to the optic nerve that sends information regarding light levels. This structure commands the Pineal Gland to release the sleep hormone, melatonin.

50
Q

What are the characteristics of each stage of sleep?

A 
Stage 1 (High brain activity)
Stage 2 (Sleep Spindles introduced)
Stage 3/4 (Least brain activity, muscles relaxed)
REM Sleep (Highest brain activity, muscles most relaxed)
51
Q

What is the function of the Reticular Formation, located in the brain stem?

A

The Reticular Formation releases potassium ions which are used to create action potentials. When inactive, the Reticular Formation encourages drowsiness by decreasing the amount of potassium available for action potentials.

52
Q

What is the function of the Locus Coeruleus?

A

The Locus Coeruleus increases the functioning of active neurons and decreases functioning of inactive neurons, which achieves focus. This structure is inactive during sleep. It releases dopamine and cortisol throughout the body to do so.

53
Q

Why do humans prefer to stay at around 37 degrees Celsius?

A

Muscle movements occur at chemical synapses and the chemistry involved is more efficient at greater heats. We cannot reasonably sustain a higher heat.

54
Q

What are the main methods by which humans cool and heat themselves naturally?

A

Shivering brings blood towards the organs which buffers them against the cold. Sweating creates evaporation, a process that uses our own heat as energy to convert sweat into steam.

55
Q

Why do humans become feverous when ill?

A

The increased heat helps the chemical reactions that combat viruses.

56
Q

What is the purpose of the hormone, Vasopressin?

A

Vasopressin decreases blood flow and draws water from urine when thirsty.

57
Q

What are the differences between the two concepts of thirsts developed by researchers?

A

Osmotic Thirst replaces water expended as a result of consuming salty foods. Hypovolemic Thirst replaces water lost as a result of bleeding or sweating.

58
Q

What are the functions of the small and large intestines?

A

The small intestine is responsible for using enzymes to produce nutrients from fats, proteins and carbohydrates. The large intestine is responsible for excrement and urine.

59
Q

What is the function of the Vagus Nerve?

A

Sending information from the stomach to the brain regarding satisfaction.

60
Q

What are the four chemicals involved with fatty storage?

A

Glucose (the fuel being stored)
Insulin (the chemical that deposits glucose)
Glucagon (the chemical that retrieves glucose)
Leptin (the chemical produced by filled cells that denotes satisfaction)

61
Q

What is the structure within the hypothalamus specifically devoted to hunger?

A

The Arcuate Nucleus is the control board for hunger.

62
Q

What area of the brain activates during violence?

A

The Corticomedial Amygdala

63
Q

What three hormones are involved with increasing and decreasing violent behaviour and what are their effects?

A

Testosterone (Excitation)
Rate of Serotonin Release (Inhibition)
Cortisol (Inhibition)

64
Q

What controls our overall levels of fear over long periods of time?

A

The Bed Nucleus, located within the Stria Terminalis, activates to make the body more receptive to stress and anxiety as a defence mechanism.

65
Q

What hormone is responsible for activation of the Sympathetic Nervous System?

A

Epinephrine.

66
Q

What are the twos types of cells in the Immune System?

A

Leukocytes destroy intruding cells whereas Cytokines command the Hypothalamus to produce symptoms of fever so that the virus can be destroyed.

67
Q

What is the brain structure essential for creating the effects of Classical Conditioning?

A

The Lateral Interpositus Nucleus, which is located within the Cerebellum.

68
Q

What three cells in the Hippocampus are used to remember our location?

A

Space Cells
Time Cells
Grid Cells

69
Q

What are the three structures within the Striatum and what is their combined function?

A

Basal Ganglia
Caudate Nucleus
Putamen

They are used to create procedural memories and gut reaction that identify patterns too numerous or complicated to be studied piece by piece.

70
Q

What are the differences within functioning for the Left and Right Hemispheres?

A

The Left Hemisphere is more specalised in language comprehension and speech. The Right Hemisphere is more specalised in emotional processing and spatial awareness.

71
Q

What are the results of damage to Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area respectively?

A

Damage to the Wernicke’s Area produces nonsensical speech (unrelated to their thoughts) that is grammatically correct. Damage to Broca’s Area produces grammatically incorrect speech that does have meaning.

72
Q

What are the preconditions for consciousness?

A

Stimulation is applied to perceptive structures.

Stimulation spreads throughout the brain.

73
Q

What are the two variables by which we study drugs?

A

Antagonistic – Agnostic (Likelihood of Stimulation)

Low and High Efficacy (Likelihood of attachment)

74
Q

What is the function of the Nucleus Accumbens?

A

The Nucleus Accumbens releases dopamine throughout the brain as a reward function.

75
Q

What is the most reliable biochemical symptom of Major Depressive Disorder and how does medication alleviate this symptom?

A

Overactive Serotonin Transporters, which produce higher emotional reactivity. Medication decreases the amount of serotonin released by blocking synapses.

76
Q

What is the difference between Positive and Negative Symptoms?

A

Positive Symptoms indicate the introduction of an abnormality whereas Negative Symptoms indicate the removal of normality.

77
Q

What is the function of Primary Motor Cortex within movement?

A

The Primary Motor Cortex executes movement by sending information to the muscles through the Corticospinal Tracts.

78
Q

What is the function of Posterior Parietal Cortex within movement?

A

The Posterior Parietal Cortex is related to planning movement before the Primary Motor Cortex acts.

79
Q

What is the function of the Premotor Cortex within movement?

A

The Premotor Cortex is related to the targeting of movement, ensuring the related body part arrives exactly at its intended destination.

80
Q

What is the function of the Supplementary Motor Cortex within movement?

A

The Supplementary Motor Cortex is related to correcting the movement of muscles when they veer off track.

81
Q

What is the function of the Basal Ganglia within movement?

A

The Basal Ganglia cancels movements and works to create motivated and spontaneous movements. It also helps to build procedural memories within muscle movement.

82
Q

Which lobe is most anterior in the brain?

A

The Frontal Lobe

83
Q

Which lobe is most dorsal in the brain?

A

The Parietal Lobe

84
Q

Which lobe is most ventral in the brain?

A

The Temporal Lobe

85
Q

Which lobe is most posterior in the brain?

A

The Occipital Lobe

86
Q

What part of the Frontal Lobe is used to consider opportunities?

A

Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex

87
Q

What part of the Frontal Lobe is used to compare outcomes?

A

Orbitofrontal Cortex

88
Q

What part of the Frontal Lobe is used when empathising?

A

Frontotemporal Lobe

89
Q

What structure of the brain helps us to recognise a familiar place?

A

Parahippocampal Cortex (Places)

90
Q

What structure of the brain helps us to recongise a familiar object or item?

A

Inferior Temporal Cortex (Items)

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