Bio Test 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Prokaryote
A
Unicellular organisms have this type of cell. Some features include:
- Not having a nucleus
- Lacks organelles, organization
- Smaller than eukaryotes
2
Q
Eukaryote
A
Multicellular organisms have this type of cell. Some features include:
- Having a nucleus
- Having organelles
- Larger than prokaryotes
3
Q
Cilium (Cilia)
A
- Present in eukaryotes only
- Functions to either move the cell itself or move things outside the cell (in the environment)
- Tiny hair-like threads on the surface of the cell (but still considered membrane-bound)
4
Q
Flagellum (Flagella)
A
- Present in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes (sperm cell is the only flagellum in the human body)
- Motile
- Thread-like tail structure
5
Q
Osmotic Bursting / Cytolysis / Osmotic Lysis
A
When the cell bursts due to an osmotic imbalance. The cell gains too much water through diffusion and ends up rupturing. Cell wall prevents this phenomenon.
6
Q
Cell Wall
A
- Found in some prokaryotes and some eukaryotes (plants)
- Mainly made of cellulose
- Covers the cell membrane
- Provides protection; tough surface
- Prevents osmotic bursting
- Fully permeable
7
Q
Pilus (Pili)
A
- Found only in prokaryotes
- Functions to help cells with adhesion or attachment to other cells
- Thin and hair-like structure, smaller than a flagellum
8
Q
Nucleoid
A
Region in a prokaryote where DNA is found
9
Q
Glycocalix / Capsule / Slime Layer
A
- Sticky outer layer of a prokaryote
- Glycocalix means “sugar coat”
- Made of polysaccharides and proteins
- Helps bacteria evade immune system more easily
10
Q
Biofilm
A
Groups of bacteria sticking together, creating slimy coatings to protect them
11
Q
3 Domains of Life are…
A
- Archaea (prokaryotic)
- Bacteria (prokaryotic)
- Eukarya (eukaryotic)
12
Q
Gram-positive
A
Thick cell wall:
- Thick peptidoglycan layer
- No outer membrane
- Retains color in gram staining
13
Q
Gram-negative
A
Thin cell wall:
- Thin peptidoglycan layer
- Has an outer membrane (lipopolysaccharides)
- Does not retain color in gram staining
14
Q
Gram Staining
A
Involves crystal violet dye, iodine solution, and ethyl alcohol or acetone.
- Crystal violet dye + iodine solution form crystal violet-iodine complex
- Ethyl alcohol or acetone dehydrates peptidoglycan layer, causing it to shrink
- In gram-positive bacteria, the violet-idoine complex cannot penetrate the shrunken peptidoglycan layer, causing it to have a purple color
- In gram-negative bacteria, the peptidoglycan layer is too thin to hold the complex crystals, causing color to be lost
15
Q
Differential Staining
A
A technique where you use different dyes to stain different microorganisms on a slide, allowing you to differentiate between the two of them more easily
16
Q
Lipopolysaccharide (LPs)
A
- Part of the outer membrane in gram-negative bacteria (and the outer membrane is part of the cell wall)
- Consists of a lipid and polysaccharide
- Endotoxin, harms the human body
17
Q
Peptidoglycan
A
- Part of the cell wall in bacteria
- Thicker layers in gram-positive bacteria
- Thinner layers in gram-negative bacteria
- Made of, as the name implies, glycan (anything with glycosidic linkages) chains and short peptides
18
Q
Nucleus
A
- Where DNA is stored
- Contains the nucleolus
- Contains chromatin
- Has a nuclear membrane made of two layers
- Has nucleus pores
19
Q
Nuclear DNA
A
- Term used to describe DNA found in the nucleus of a cell
- Both paternal and maternal DNA
20
Q
Histones
A
Proteins in chromatin that help give structure to chromosomes (made of DNA)
21
Q
Chromatin
A
Histones + DNA
22
Q
Nucleolus
A
- Transcribes/Produces rRNA
- Produces ribosomes
23
Q
Nuclear Membrane / Nuclear Envelope
A
- Made of two phospholipid bilayers (inner and outer)
- Semi-permeable
24
Q
Nucleus Pores
A
- Holes in the nuclear membrane
- Allows select molecules to pass (such as RNA)
25
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Site of protein synthesis (produces proteins)
- Contains ribosomes
- Makes membrane
26
Ribosomes
- Functions to actually synthesize and produce proteins
- Found in the rough ER
- Made in the nucleolus
- Has a large subunit and small subunit
- Made of rRNA and protein
27
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Synthesizes lipids
- Metabolizes carbohydrates
- Detoxification of drugs and poisons
- Makes vesicles (membranes of phospholipid bilayer + proteins)
28
Golgi Apparatus
- Modifies lipids and proteins
- Sends them to destinations in vesicles
- Produces vesicles just like the smooth ER does
29
DNA Cycle
DNA → mRNA → out of nuclear pores → rough ER → ribosome → protein → smooth ER → vesicle → golgi apparatus → vesicle → cell membrane
30
Mitochondrion (Mitochondria)
- Found in eukaryotic cells
- Produces ATP via cellular respiration
- Has its own ribosomes (can make proteins)
- Has its own DNA
- Mitochondrial DNA is maternal only
31
Lysosome
- ONLY for animal cells, NOT in plant cells
- Has hydrolytic enzymes (enzymes involved in hydrolysis)
- Involved in breaking down worn-out or excess cell parts
- Can also destroy viruses or bacteria
- "Clean up" organelle
32
Central Vacuole
- ONLY for plant cells and fungi cells, NOT in animal cells
- Stores chemicals for later use
- Stores water to provide rigidity
- Stores macromolecules
- Storage organelle in plants
33
Chloroplast
- Only in plants
- Converts CO2 and H2O into sugar using light energy
- Has its own ribosomes
- Has its own DNA
- Made of thylakoids (in grana) and stroma
- Contains chlorophyll in grana
34
Thylakoid
- Flattened sacs in chloroplasts
- Photosynthesis takes place here
- Stacks of thylakoids are called grana (singular: granum)
35
Granum (Grana)
Stacks of thylakoids
36
Stroma
- Colorless fluid around the grana in chloroplasts
- Photosynthesis is started here and finished in thylakoids
37
Centrosome
- Only found in animal cells
- Gives structure to cell
- Primary microtubule-organizing center (MTOC), moves microtubules around, aka shifts cytoskeleton
- "Funny" vacuole
- Contains centrioles
38
Centriole/Centrosome
- Produces spindle fibers used to move chromosomes around the cell during mitosis (centriole)
- Involved in flagella and cilia formation (centrosome)
- Helps determine locations of organelles in the cell (centrosome)
39
Cytoskeleton
- Gives cell its structure
- Consists of 3 components: microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediary filaments
40
Endomembrane System
- How membrane-bound organelles interact
41
Fluid Mosaic
The idea that the plasma membrane is made of a mix of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates
42
Plasma Membrane
- Aka cell membrane
- Phospholipid bilayer
- Selectively permeable, allows only specific molecules to pass
43
Membrane Fluidity
- Viscous: saturated hydrocarbon tails, straight
- Fluid: unsaturated hydrocarbon tails, kinked
- Cholesterol can fill in, making saturated tails more fluid and unsaturated tails more viscous (good balance)
44
Glycoprotein
- Protein attached to oligosaccharide
- Modified protein
- Involved in cell-to-cell recognition, virus-to-cell recognition, bacteria-to-cell recognition
- On the outside of a plasma membrane with the oligosaccharde facing out
45
Glycolipid
- Lipid attached to oligosaccharide
- Modified lipid
- Involved in cell-to-cell recognition, virus-to-cell recognition, bacteria-to-cell recognition
- On the outside of a plasma membrane with the oligosaccharde facing out
46
Phospholipid Movement
- Flips laterally (horizontally) about 10 million times per second
- Flip-flops or switches vertically about once per month
47
Simple Diffusion
- Passive transport
- Involves either hydrophobic molecules or small, uncharged, and polar molecules
48
Facilitated Diffusion
- Passive transport
- Involves either ions or large and polar molecules (even if uncharged)
49
Transmembrane Protein
- Spans the whole membrane
- Nonpolar amino acids interact with the phospholipid bilayer
- Polar amino acids face outside and make a kind of channel to facilitate diffusion of polar molecules
- Often coiled in alpha helixes, helical bundles, or beta barrels
50
Membrane Proteins help with...
- Intercellular joining
- Enzymatic activity
- Transport (active or passive)
- Cell-to-cell recognition (glycoproteins)
- Signal transduction
51
Active Transport
- Uses energy from ATP to transport molecules
- Against the gradient
- Carrier changes shape
- Produces a concentration gradient
52
Passive Transport
- Does not use ATP energy
- Small molecules can passively diffuse through membranes
- With the gradient
- Larger molecules and ions enter through proteins (channel proteins or passive carrier proteins)
- Diffusion is ALWAYS passive
53
Aquaporin
Channel protein that allows water to pass
54
Gradient
- Low concentration on one side and high concentration on the other
- A form of potential energy (PE)
55
Glute
Carrier protein that allows glucose to pass (passive transport)
56
ATP Hydrolysis
Breaks down ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi), also ATPase activity
57
Phosphorylation
Pi binds to a molecule and changes its shape; verb is 'phosphorilate'
58
Conformational Change
Shape change of a protein due to phosphorilation; changes the protein's function due to the change in shape
59
Dephosphorylation
Loses the inorganic phosphate that bonded to the molecule
60
Na+/K+ pump (Sodium-Potassium ATPase or pump)
Involves ATP hydrolysis, phosphorilation, conformational change, dephosphorilation to actively transpor Na+ and K+ ions
61
Proton Pump + Sucrose-H+ Cotransporter
- Proton pump uses ATP to transport protons (H+) against the gradient
- Protons eventually diffuse back into the cell but also cotransport sucrose, which can be used to create ATP
62
Bulk Transport
- For large molecules to pass
- Requires ATP
- Includes exocytosis and endocytosis
- Also for cells "eating" (engulfing) other cells
63
Exocytosis
Transport large molecules out of the cell
64
Endocytosis
Transport large molecules into the cell
65
Pinocytosis
Cell eats droplets of extracellular fluid with molecules in it, nonspecific process, endocytosis
66
Phagocytosis
Cell eats bacteria or another cell
67
Macrophage
"Big eater" cell eating
68
Antibodies
Cause viruses to become sluggish and easier to destroy
69
Pseudopod / Pseudopodium
Temporary extensions of the cytoplasm to wrap around the bacteria, cell, or molecule and engulf it
70
Amoeba
A single eukaryotic cell
71
Protozoa
A type of parasite
72
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
Binds to a receptor and then pseudopod engulfs it
73
Low-density Lipoprotein (LDL) Cholesterol
- "Bad" cholesterol, can lead to build-ups
- Cholesterol surrounded by proteins and phospholipid coat
74
Metabolism
Totality of an organism's chemical reactions
75
Catabolic Reaction
Reaction that involves breaking things down (like hydrolysis)
76
Anabolic Reaction
Reaction that involves building/synthesizing things (like dehydration)
77
Metabolic pathways
- Can be linear or cyclic or branched
- Pathways for chemical reactions
78
Nucleoside
A nucleotide without any phosphate
79
Distal or Terminal Phosphate Group
The last, most distant phosphate group from the rest of the structure
80
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created or destroyed (same with matter)
81
Second Law of Thermodynamics
During energy transfer, energy is lost to the environment as heat
82
Exergonic
- Spontaneous
- Passive
- Decrease in energy
83
Endergonic
- Nonspontaneous
- Active
- Requires energy
84
Energy Gradient
Difference in energy on different sides of a membrane
85
Coupling
When energy is released during a spontaneous process and the energy released is used to allow a nonspontaneous reaction to occur
86
ATP Gibbs Free Energy
-7 kcal/mol
87
What is the final acceptor on the ETC?
Oxygen due to electronegativity
88
Ribosimes
Ribosomal Enzymes
89
Hexokinase
Kinase adds phosphate group, hexokinase adds phosphates to 6-carbon sugars
90
Anabolic Enzyme
Enzyme involved in synthesis
91
Two models for enzymes
- Lock-and-key model (self, explanatory)
- Induced-fit model (fits around the enzyme, not like a lock and key)
92
Cofactor
- Non-protein
- Inorganic compound
- Neutral ion
- Divalent (could make a +2 charge like Mg, Ca, Mn)
- Enzyme helper
93
Coenzyme
- Small organic molecules
- Enzyme helper
94
Apoenzyme
Inactive enzyme
95
Holoenzyme
Active enzyme (w/ helper)
96
What is the optimal temperature for human enzymes?
98.6°F or 37°C
97
Thermus Aquaticus
Hot water (70 degrees Celsius)
Bacteria found in hot springs and is eally usful dfodf somdkj
98
Acidophile
Likes acidic environments
99
Neutrophile
Likes neutral (pH-wise) environments
100
Inhibitor
- Interferes w/ ES complex
- Competitive (competes directly) vs Noncompetitive (changes the shape of the enzyme)
- Reversible vs Irreversible
101
Allosteric Control
- Allosteric Activator (locks protein in active state, bonds elswhere to activate)
- Allosteric Inhibitor (locks protein in inactive form, bonds elsewhere to inhibit)
102
Cooperativity
- Is a type of allosteric control
- Substrate causes subunit to activate, which then causes the next subunit to activate and so on
103
Feedback Inhibition
Enzyme's end product binds to enzyme as an allosteric inhibitor to prevent more product from forming (prevent enzyme from activating and working)
104
Cellular Respiration Equation
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP + Heat
105
Electron Carrier
- Carries Electrons to the Electron Transport Chain (Oxidative Phosphorilation)
- NADH, FADH₂ (reducing agents too)
106
3 Stages of Cellular Respiration
1. Glycolysis
2. Citric Acid Cycle / KREBS Cycle / Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (TCA Cycle)
3. Oxidative Phosphorilation / Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
107
Substrate-level Phosphorylation
Transfer of phosphate from a substrate to ADP molecule to generate ATP
108
Step 1 of Glycolysis
- Begins w/ glucose
- Enzyme hexokinase involved
- Add phosphate group
- Produces glucose 6-phosphate
- Committed/Irreversible step (uses ATP)
109
Step 2 of Glycolysis
- Starts w/ glucose 6-phosphate
- Enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase involved
- Produces fructose 6-phosphate
- Noncommitted/Reversible step
110
Step 3 of Glycolysis
- Begins w/ fructose 6-phosphate
- Uses pfk or phosphofructokinase
- Adds phosphate group
- Produces fructose 1, 6-biphosphate
- Committed/Irreversible step (uses ATP)
111
Glycolysis (what to know overall)
- Starts w/ glucose
- Ends w/ pyruvate
- Pyruvate gets converted into something else (CoA) to go to the TCA cycle
- Net x2 ATP
- Makes NADH as well
- Aerobic
112
KREBS Cycle
- CO₂ comes off
- NADH produced
- x2 ATP
- FADH₂ produced
- Many intermediates
- Aerobic
113
ETC
- Electron transport chain
- Redox!!
- H⁺ protons cross the membrane when redox reactions occur
- Aerobic
- ATP synthase allows H⁺ protons to pass the innermitochondrial membrane into the mitochondrial matrix
- Chemiosmosis occurs - diffusion of H⁺ ions across ATP synthase, also produces ATP
- ATP synthase and chemiosmosis are coupled processes
114
ATP Synthase
Allows H⁺ protons to cross the membrane into the mitochondrial matrix
115
Chemiosmosis
Diffusion of H⁺ protons across the membrane down the gradient, resulting in ATP
116
Enzymes in ETC
1. NADH reductase
2. Succinate Dehydrogenase
3. Cytochrome reductase
117
Fermentation
- Alcohol fermentation (produces alcohol)
- Lactic acid fermentation (produces lactic acid)
- Anaerobic
- Only produces x2 ATP
118
Amylase
Breaks down starch
