Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

BIOL-150 > Bio Test 2 > Flashcards

Bio Test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Prokaryote

A

Unicellular organisms have this type of cell. Some features include:
- Not having a nucleus
- Lacks organelles, organization
- Smaller than eukaryotes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Eukaryote

A

Multicellular organisms have this type of cell. Some features include:
- Having a nucleus
- Having organelles
- Larger than prokaryotes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Cilium (Cilia)

A
  • Present in eukaryotes only
  • Functions to either move the cell itself or move things outside the cell (in the environment)
  • Tiny hair-like threads on the surface of the cell (but still considered membrane-bound)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Flagellum (Flagella)

A
  • Present in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes (sperm cell is the only flagellum in the human body)
  • Motile
  • Thread-like tail structure
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Osmotic Bursting / Cytolysis / Osmotic Lysis

A

When the cell bursts due to an osmotic imbalance. The cell gains too much water through diffusion and ends up rupturing. Cell wall prevents this phenomenon.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Cell Wall

A
  • Found in some prokaryotes and some eukaryotes (plants)
  • Mainly made of cellulose
  • Covers the cell membrane
  • Provides protection; tough surface
  • Prevents osmotic bursting
  • Fully permeable
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Pilus (Pili)

A
  • Found only in prokaryotes
  • Functions to help cells with adhesion or attachment to other cells
  • Thin and hair-like structure, smaller than a flagellum
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Nucleoid

A

Region in a prokaryote where DNA is found

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Glycocalix / Capsule / Slime Layer

A
  • Sticky outer layer of a prokaryote
  • Glycocalix means “sugar coat”
  • Made of polysaccharides and proteins
  • Helps bacteria evade immune system more easily
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Biofilm

A

Groups of bacteria sticking together, creating slimy coatings to protect them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

3 Domains of Life are…

A
  1. Archaea (prokaryotic)
  2. Bacteria (prokaryotic)
  3. Eukarya (eukaryotic)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Gram-positive

A

Thick cell wall:
- Thick peptidoglycan layer
- No outer membrane
- Retains color in gram staining

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Gram-negative

A

Thin cell wall:
- Thin peptidoglycan layer
- Has an outer membrane (lipopolysaccharides)
- Does not retain color in gram staining

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Gram Staining

A

Involves crystal violet dye, iodine solution, and ethyl alcohol or acetone.
- Crystal violet dye + iodine solution form crystal violet-iodine complex
- Ethyl alcohol or acetone dehydrates peptidoglycan layer, causing it to shrink
- In gram-positive bacteria, the violet-idoine complex cannot penetrate the shrunken peptidoglycan layer, causing it to have a purple color
- In gram-negative bacteria, the peptidoglycan layer is too thin to hold the complex crystals, causing color to be lost

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Differential Staining

A

A technique where you use different dyes to stain different microorganisms on a slide, allowing you to differentiate between the two of them more easily

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Lipopolysaccharide (LPs)

A
  • Part of the outer membrane in gram-negative bacteria (and the outer membrane is part of the cell wall)
  • Consists of a lipid and polysaccharide
  • Endotoxin, harms the human body
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Peptidoglycan

A
  • Part of the cell wall in bacteria
  • Thicker layers in gram-positive bacteria
  • Thinner layers in gram-negative bacteria
  • Made of, as the name implies, glycan (anything with glycosidic linkages) chains and short peptides
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Nucleus

A
  • Where DNA is stored
  • Contains the nucleolus
  • Contains chromatin
  • Has a nuclear membrane made of two layers
  • Has nucleus pores
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Nuclear DNA

A
  • Term used to describe DNA found in the nucleus of a cell
  • Both paternal and maternal DNA
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Histones

A

Proteins in chromatin that help give structure to chromosomes (made of DNA)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Chromatin

A

Histones + DNA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Nucleolus

A
  • Transcribes/Produces rRNA
  • Produces ribosomes
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Nuclear Membrane / Nuclear Envelope

A
  • Made of two phospholipid bilayers (inner and outer)
  • Semi-permeable
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Nucleus Pores

A
  • Holes in the nuclear membrane
  • Allows select molecules to pass (such as RNA)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A
  • Site of protein synthesis (produces proteins)
  • Contains ribosomes
  • Makes membrane
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Ribosomes

A
  • Functions to actually synthesize and produce proteins
  • Found in the rough ER
  • Made in the nucleolus
  • Has a large subunit and small subunit
  • Made of rRNA and protein
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

A
  • Synthesizes lipids
  • Metabolizes carbohydrates
  • Detoxification of drugs and poisons
  • Makes vesicles (membranes of phospholipid bilayer + proteins)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A
  • Modifies lipids and proteins
  • Sends them to destinations in vesicles
  • Produces vesicles just like the smooth ER does
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

DNA Cycle

A

DNA → mRNA → out of nuclear pores → rough ER → ribosome → protein → smooth ER → vesicle → golgi apparatus → vesicle → cell membrane

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Mitochondrion (Mitochondria)

A
  • Found in eukaryotic cells
  • Produces ATP via cellular respiration
  • Has its own ribosomes (can make proteins)
  • Has its own DNA
  • Mitochondrial DNA is maternal only
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Lysosome

A
  • ONLY for animal cells, NOT in plant cells
  • Has hydrolytic enzymes (enzymes involved in hydrolysis)
  • Involved in breaking down worn-out or excess cell parts
  • Can also destroy viruses or bacteria
  • “Clean up” organelle
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Central Vacuole

A
  • ONLY for plant cells and fungi cells, NOT in animal cells
  • Stores chemicals for later use
  • Stores water to provide rigidity
  • Stores macromolecules
  • Storage organelle in plants
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Chloroplast

A
  • Only in plants
  • Converts CO2 and H2O into sugar using light energy
  • Has its own ribosomes
  • Has its own DNA
  • Made of thylakoids (in grana) and stroma
  • Contains chlorophyll in grana
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Thylakoid

A
  • Flattened sacs in chloroplasts
  • Photosynthesis takes place here
  • Stacks of thylakoids are called grana (singular: granum)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Granum (Grana)

A

Stacks of thylakoids

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Stroma

A
  • Colorless fluid around the grana in chloroplasts
  • Photosynthesis is started here and finished in thylakoids
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Centrosome

A
  • Only found in animal cells
  • Gives structure to cell
  • Primary microtubule-organizing center (MTOC), moves microtubules around, aka shifts cytoskeleton
  • “Funny” vacuole
  • Contains centrioles
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Centriole/Centrosome

A
  • Produces spindle fibers used to move chromosomes around the cell during mitosis (centriole)
  • Involved in flagella and cilia formation (centrosome)
  • Helps determine locations of organelles in the cell (centrosome)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Cytoskeleton

A
  • Gives cell its structure
  • Consists of 3 components: microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediary filaments
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Endomembrane System

A
  • How membrane-bound organelles interact
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Fluid Mosaic

A

The idea that the plasma membrane is made of a mix of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Plasma Membrane

A
  • Aka cell membrane
  • Phospholipid bilayer
  • Selectively permeable, allows only specific molecules to pass
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Membrane Fluidity

A
  • Viscous: saturated hydrocarbon tails, straight
  • Fluid: unsaturated hydrocarbon tails, kinked
  • Cholesterol can fill in, making saturated tails more fluid and unsaturated tails more viscous (good balance)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Glycoprotein

A
  • Protein attached to oligosaccharide
  • Modified protein
  • Involved in cell-to-cell recognition, virus-to-cell recognition, bacteria-to-cell recognition
  • On the outside of a plasma membrane with the oligosaccharde facing out
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Glycolipid

A
  • Lipid attached to oligosaccharide
  • Modified lipid
  • Involved in cell-to-cell recognition, virus-to-cell recognition, bacteria-to-cell recognition
  • On the outside of a plasma membrane with the oligosaccharde facing out
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Phospholipid Movement

A
  • Flips laterally (horizontally) about 10 million times per second
  • Flip-flops or switches vertically about once per month
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Simple Diffusion

A
  • Passive transport
  • Involves either hydrophobic molecules or small, uncharged, and polar molecules
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

A
  • Passive transport
  • Involves either ions or large and polar molecules (even if uncharged)
49
Q

Transmembrane Protein

A
  • Spans the whole membrane
  • Nonpolar amino acids interact with the phospholipid bilayer
  • Polar amino acids face outside and make a kind of channel to facilitate diffusion of polar molecules
  • Often coiled in alpha helixes, helical bundles, or beta barrels
50
Q

Membrane Proteins help with…

A
  • Intercellular joining
  • Enzymatic activity
  • Transport (active or passive)
  • Cell-to-cell recognition (glycoproteins)
  • Signal transduction
51
Q

Active Transport

A
  • Uses energy from ATP to transport molecules
  • Against the gradient
  • Carrier changes shape
  • Produces a concentration gradient
52
Q

Passive Transport

A
  • Does not use ATP energy
  • Small molecules can passively diffuse through membranes
  • With the gradient
  • Larger molecules and ions enter through proteins (channel proteins or passive carrier proteins)
  • Diffusion is ALWAYS passive
53
Q

Aquaporin

A

Channel protein that allows water to pass

54
Q

Gradient

A
  • Low concentration on one side and high concentration on the other
  • A form of potential energy (PE)
55
Q

Glute

A

Carrier protein that allows glucose to pass (passive transport)

56
Q

ATP Hydrolysis

A

Breaks down ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi), also ATPase activity

57
Q

Phosphorylation

A

Pi binds to a molecule and changes its shape; verb is ‘phosphorilate’

58
Q

Conformational Change

A

Shape change of a protein due to phosphorilation; changes the protein’s function due to the change in shape

59
Q

Dephosphorylation

A

Loses the inorganic phosphate that bonded to the molecule

60
Q

Na+/K+ pump (Sodium-Potassium ATPase or pump)

A

Involves ATP hydrolysis, phosphorilation, conformational change, dephosphorilation to actively transpor Na+ and K+ ions

61
Q

Proton Pump + Sucrose-H+ Cotransporter

A
  • Proton pump uses ATP to transport protons (H+) against the gradient
  • Protons eventually diffuse back into the cell but also cotransport sucrose, which can be used to create ATP
62
Q

Bulk Transport

A
  • For large molecules to pass
  • Requires ATP
  • Includes exocytosis and endocytosis
  • Also for cells “eating” (engulfing) other cells
63
Q

Exocytosis

A

Transport large molecules out of the cell

64
Q

Endocytosis

A

Transport large molecules into the cell

65
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Cell eats droplets of extracellular fluid with molecules in it, nonspecific process, endocytosis

66
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Cell eats bacteria or another cell

67
Q

Macrophage

A

“Big eater” cell eating

68
Q

Antibodies

A

Cause viruses to become sluggish and easier to destroy

69
Q

Pseudopod / Pseudopodium

A

Temporary extensions of the cytoplasm to wrap around the bacteria, cell, or molecule and engulf it

70
Q

Amoeba

A

A single eukaryotic cell

71
Q

Protozoa

A

A type of parasite

72
Q

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

A

Binds to a receptor and then pseudopod engulfs it

73
Q

Low-density Lipoprotein (LDL) Cholesterol

A
  • “Bad” cholesterol, can lead to build-ups
  • Cholesterol surrounded by proteins and phospholipid coat
74
Q

Metabolism

A

Totality of an organism’s chemical reactions

75
Q

Catabolic Reaction

A

Reaction that involves breaking things down (like hydrolysis)

76
Q

Anabolic Reaction

A

Reaction that involves building/synthesizing things (like dehydration)

77
Q

Metabolic pathways

A
  • Can be linear or cyclic or branched
  • Pathways for chemical reactions
78
Q

Nucleoside

A

A nucleotide without any phosphate

79
Q

Distal or Terminal Phosphate Group

A

The last, most distant phosphate group from the rest of the structure

80
Q

First Law of Thermodynamics

A

Energy cannot be created or destroyed (same with matter)

81
Q

Second Law of Thermodynamics

A

During energy transfer, energy is lost to the environment as heat

82
Q

Exergonic

A
  • Spontaneous
  • Passive
  • Decrease in energy
83
Q

Endergonic

A
  • Nonspontaneous
  • Active
  • Requires energy
84
Q

Energy Gradient

A

Difference in energy on different sides of a membrane

85
Q

Coupling

A

When energy is released during a spontaneous process and the energy released is used to allow a nonspontaneous reaction to occur

86
Q

ATP Gibbs Free Energy

A

-7 kcal/mol

87
Q

What is the final acceptor on the ETC?

A

Oxygen due to electronegativity

88
Q

Ribosimes

A

Ribosomal Enzymes

89
Q

Hexokinase

A

Kinase adds phosphate group, hexokinase adds phosphates to 6-carbon sugars

90
Q

Anabolic Enzyme

A

Enzyme involved in synthesis

91
Q

Two models for enzymes

A
  • Lock-and-key model (self, explanatory)
  • Induced-fit model (fits around the enzyme, not like a lock and key)
92
Q

Cofactor

A
  • Non-protein
  • Inorganic compound
  • Neutral ion
  • Divalent (could make a +2 charge like Mg, Ca, Mn)
  • Enzyme helper
93
Q

Coenzyme

A
  • Small organic molecules
  • Enzyme helper
94
Q

Apoenzyme

A

Inactive enzyme

95
Q

Holoenzyme

A

Active enzyme (w/ helper)

96
Q

What is the optimal temperature for human enzymes?

A

98.6°F or 37°C

97
Q

Thermus Aquaticus

A

Hot water (70 degrees Celsius)
Bacteria found in hot springs and is eally usful dfodf somdkj

98
Q

Acidophile

A

Likes acidic environments

99
Q

Neutrophile

A

Likes neutral (pH-wise) environments

100
Q

Inhibitor

A
  • Interferes w/ ES complex
  • Competitive (competes directly) vs Noncompetitive (changes the shape of the enzyme)
  • Reversible vs Irreversible
101
Q

Allosteric Control

A
  • Allosteric Activator (locks protein in active state, bonds elswhere to activate)
  • Allosteric Inhibitor (locks protein in inactive form, bonds elsewhere to inhibit)
102
Q

Cooperativity

A
  • Is a type of allosteric control
  • Substrate causes subunit to activate, which then causes the next subunit to activate and so on
103
Q

Feedback Inhibition

A

Enzyme’s end product binds to enzyme as an allosteric inhibitor to prevent more product from forming (prevent enzyme from activating and working)

104
Q

Cellular Respiration Equation

A

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP + Heat

105
Q

Electron Carrier

A
  • Carries Electrons to the Electron Transport Chain (Oxidative Phosphorilation)
  • NADH, FADH₂ (reducing agents too)
106
Q

3 Stages of Cellular Respiration

A
  1. Glycolysis
  2. Citric Acid Cycle / KREBS Cycle / Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (TCA Cycle)
  3. Oxidative Phosphorilation / Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
107
Q

Substrate-level Phosphorylation

A

Transfer of phosphate from a substrate to ADP molecule to generate ATP

108
Q

Step 1 of Glycolysis

A
  • Begins w/ glucose
  • Enzyme hexokinase involved
  • Add phosphate group
  • Produces glucose 6-phosphate
  • Committed/Irreversible step (uses ATP)
109
Q

Step 2 of Glycolysis

A
  • Starts w/ glucose 6-phosphate
  • Enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase involved
  • Produces fructose 6-phosphate
  • Noncommitted/Reversible step
110
Q

Step 3 of Glycolysis

A
  • Begins w/ fructose 6-phosphate
  • Uses pfk or phosphofructokinase
  • Adds phosphate group
  • Produces fructose 1, 6-biphosphate
  • Committed/Irreversible step (uses ATP)
111
Q

Glycolysis (what to know overall)

A
  • Starts w/ glucose
  • Ends w/ pyruvate
  • Pyruvate gets converted into something else (CoA) to go to the TCA cycle
  • Net x2 ATP
  • Makes NADH as well
  • Aerobic
112
Q

KREBS Cycle

A
  • CO₂ comes off
  • NADH produced
  • x2 ATP
  • FADH₂ produced
  • Many intermediates
  • Aerobic
113
Q

ETC

A
  • Electron transport chain
  • Redox!!
  • H⁺ protons cross the membrane when redox reactions occur
  • Aerobic
  • ATP synthase allows H⁺ protons to pass the innermitochondrial membrane into the mitochondrial matrix
  • Chemiosmosis occurs - diffusion of H⁺ ions across ATP synthase, also produces ATP
  • ATP synthase and chemiosmosis are coupled processes
114
Q

ATP Synthase

A

Allows H⁺ protons to cross the membrane into the mitochondrial matrix

115
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

Diffusion of H⁺ protons across the membrane down the gradient, resulting in ATP

116
Q

Enzymes in ETC

A
  1. NADH reductase
  2. Succinate Dehydrogenase
  3. Cytochrome reductase
117
Q

Fermentation

A
  • Alcohol fermentation (produces alcohol)
  • Lactic acid fermentation (produces lactic acid)
  • Anaerobic
  • Only produces x2 ATP
118
Q

Amylase

A

Breaks down starch

BIOL-150 (7 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions