Bio 111 Exam Two Flashcards
Three Basic Components of Cardiovascular System
-Blood
-Blood Vessels
-Heart
Three Types of Blood Vessels
-Arteries
-Veins
-Capillaries
Three Types of Blood Cells
-Erythrocytes
-Leukocytes
-Thrombocytes
Erythrocytes
-Red Blood Cells
-Transport Oxygen
-Contain hemoglobin
-no nucleus
-transports up to 4 O2
Hemoglobin
-iron containing protein
-made up of heme group, iron, and polypeptide molecule
-heme group binds iron, which binds oxygen
Leukocytes
-white blood cells
-function in defense
-phagocytosis (eating) of bacteria and viruses
-release perforins (poison) that kills bacteria
-housekeeping cells
Thrombocytes
-platelets; fragments that function in blood clotting
-forms clot to stop bleeding
-coagulation cascade converts inactive fibrinogen to fibrin through exposure to air
Blood stem cell
-come from blood from bone marrow
-become various other blood cells
Major Parts of the Circulatory System
-Capillaries
-Lungs
-Heart
-Vein
-Kidney
-Artery
Arteries
-carry blood away from the heart and organs
-usually carry oxygenated blood (exception pulmonary artery)
-artery has thicker walls than vein
Veins
-return blood to the heart
-usually deoxygenated blood (exception pulmonary vein)
-thinner walls than artery
Capillaries
-surround each tissue like nets
-aka capillary bed
-gases are exchanged between thin capillary walls
Heart
-covered by pericardium for protection
-separated in half by septum
-right side deoxygenated
-left side oxygenated
-four chambers: two atrium, two ventricles
-atrium receive blood
-ventricles pump blood out of heart
Sinoatrial Node
-SA Node
-near right atrium
-regulates heart beat (pacemaker)
-heartbeat influenced by hormones, body temperature and exercise
Tricuspid Valve
-between right atrium and right ventricle
-prevents backflow
Superior Vena Cava
-vein
-upper right side of heart
-brings deoxygenated blood to heart from upper body
Inferior Vena Cava
-vein
-lower right side of heart
-brings deoxygenated blood to heart from lower body
Aorta
-artery
-connected to left ventricle
-sends oxygenated blood through body
Pulmonary Artery
-connected to right ventricle
-sends deoxygenated blood to lungs
Pulmonary Vein
-connected to left atrium
-brings oxygenated blood back to heart from lungs
Bicuspid Valve
-between left atrium and left ventricle
-prevents backflow
Blood Flow Through Heart
-Superior and Inferior Vena Cava (from body) (deoxygenated)
-Right Atrium (deoxygenated)
-Right Ventricle (deoxygenated)
-Pulmonary Artery (deoxygenated)
-Lungs
-Pulmonary Vein (oxygenated)
-Left Atrium (oxygenated)
-Left Ventricle (oxygenated)
-Aorta (to body) (oxygenated)
Respiratory System
-functions in gas exchange
-inhale oxygen, exhale carbon dioxide
-oxygen enters blood stream; sent to cells and enters mitochondria
-gas exchange takes place through diffusion
Four Common Respiratory Organs
-Gills
-Tracheae
-Skin
-Lungs
Gills
-aquatic animals
-outfoldings of body surface
-specialized for gas exchange
-requires water
-capillaries in gills take oxygen into bloodstream
Tracheae
-air tubes found in insects
-branch throughout entire insect body
-supply oxygen directly to each cell
-components: tracheae (opens to outside to obtain O2), spiracle, air sacs
Major Respiratory System Components
-Nasal Cavity
-Pharynx (throat)
-Larynx (voice box)
-Epiglottis
-Trachea
-Lungs
-Diaphragm
Flow of Air From Outside to Lungs
-air enters through nasal cavity
-hairs filter out dust and debris
-air warmed and humidified
-air moves into pharynx
-air moved into trachea (windpipe)
-trachea branches to two airways, leading to each lung
-each branch called bronchus (bronchi-plural)
‘Mucus Escalator’
-filters particles (dust, viruses, bacteria)
-made up of cilia and mucus
-lines respiratory tract to move particles up to pharynx
-particles trapped in mucus
-cleans respiratory system
Inside Lungs
-Bronchi
-Bronchioles
-Alveoli
Bronchi
-two branches of the trachea
-branch into bronchial trees called bronchioles
Bronchioles
-branches off of bronchi
-end in alveoli
Alveoli
-endpoints of the respiratory system
-air sacs that have contact with blood vessels
-where oxygen is takes into bloodstream
-human lung has 150 million alveoli in each lung
Diaphragm
-sits under lungs and ribcage
-to inhale, diaphragm contracts (moves down)
-to exhale, diaphragm relaxes (moves up)
Skin as Respiratory Surface
-used mostly by amphibians (frogs, etc)
-network of capillaries attached to skin
-skin very thin; oxygen diffuses directly through to capillaries
Heterotrophs
-animal dependent on regular food supply
Herbivores
-eat mainly plants
Carnivores
-eat mainly meat
Omnivores
-eat plant and animal matter
Diet Must Provide
-glucose and fats (used to form ATP energy)
-Amino Acids (build protein)
-Vitamins and Minerals (for enzyme functioning)
Essential Nutrients
-materials animal cannot make on their own
-must be obtained from diet
-four classes: amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals
Essential Amino Acids
-eight must be obtained from food
-animal proteins are complete; all 8 amino acids present
-plant proteins incomplete; not all 8 amino acids present
Essential Fatty Acids
-Omega-3 Fatty Acids
-found in fish, eggs, some seeds, some nuts
Vitamins
- essential organic molecules
-water-soluble and fat soluble
Water Soluble Vitamins
-thiamine
-riboflavin
-niacin
-pantothenic acid
-pyridoxine
-biotin
-folic acid
-cobalamin
-ascorbic acid
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
-retinol
-vitamin D
-tocopherol
-phylloquinone
Minerals
-simple inorganic nutrients
-Calcium
-Phosphorus
-Sulfur
-Potassium
-Chlorine
-Sodium
-Magnesium
Iron
-Fluorine
-Iodine
-Cobalt
-Copper
-Manganese
-molybdenum
-selenium
-zinc
Appetite Regulation
-hormones regulate long and short term appetite
-affect satiety center in brain
-regulating hormones: leptin, PYY, insulin, ghrelin
Leptin
-hormone
-suppresses appetite
-produced by fat cells
PYY
-hormone
-suppresses appetite
-produced by small intestine
Insulin
-hormone
-suppresses appetite
-produced by pancreas due to rise in blood sugar after meal
Ghrelin
-hormone
-triggers feeling of hunger
-secreted by stomach
Four Main Stages of Food Processing
-Ingestion
-Digestion
-Absorption
-Elimination
Ingestion
eating food
Digestion
breakdown food into small particles
Absorption
absorbing nutrients
Elimination
removal of waste
Gastrointestinal Tract
-aka GI Tract
-digestive tube with two openings, mouth and anus
-food moves through GI tract in one direction
GI Tract Components
-mouth
-pharynx (throat)
-esophagus
-crop/gizzard/stomach
-intestines
Crop
-not found in humans (worms, birds, etc)
-stores food
Gizzard
-not found in humans (worms, birds, etc)
-contains sand/rocks
-grinds food (teeth analogue)
Earthworm GI Tract
-mouth
-pharynx
-esophagus
-crop
-gizzard
-intestine
-anus
Bird GI Tract
-mouth
-esophagus
-crop
-stomach
-gizzard
-intestine
-anus
Gastric Ceca
-found in insects only
-outfoldings that absorb nutrients
-spread nutrients through body
Grasshopper GI Tract
-mouth
-esophagus
-crop
-gastric ceca
-anus
Digestion
-mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into small particles to be absorbed by body
Peristalsis
-muscle contractions that move food through GI Tract
Sphincters
-close off parts of GI tracts so food doesn’t move through too quickly
Pyloric sphincter
-separates stomach and small intestine
Major Components of Digestive System
-oral cavity
-tongue
-salivary glands
-pharynx
-esophagus
-liver
-gall bladder
-stomach
-pancreas
-small intestine
-large intestine
-rectum
-anus
Oral cavity
-mouth
-enzymes in saliva start to break down carbs
-contains teeth, salivary glands, tongue
Teeth
-breakdown food into smaller pieces
Salivary Glands
-produce saliva
-three in oral cavity
Saliva
-produced by salivary glands
-lubricates food
-contains mucus
-protects lining of mouth from abrasion
-contains amylase
contains buffers
Amylase
-enzyme contained in saliva
-breaks down starch
Buffers
-contained in saliva
-helps prevent tooth decay
-neutralizes pH so amylase can work, even if acidic foods eaten
Tongue
shapes food into a bolus to help with swallowing
Pharynx
-aka throat
-junction that opens to both esophagus and trachea
esophagus
-connects to stomach
-transports food to stomach through peristalsis
epiglottis
-blocks entry to trachea when swallowing
Stomach
-stores food
-begins digestion of proteins
-secretes gastric juice
-gastric juices kill bacteria in food
-enzyme pepsin breaks down proteins
-pyloric sphincter regulates movement of acid chyme from stomach to small intestine
Gastric Juice
-converts food bolus to acid chyme
-contains HCL (hydrochloric acid)
-contains pepsin enzyme
Pepsin
-enzyme that makes up gastric juice, along with HCl
-is a protease: protein digesting enzyme
-chops proteins into smaller peptides
Three Types of Cells in Stomach
-found in gastric pits (gastric gland) on interior surface of stomach
-Mucus Cell
-Chief Cell
-Parietal Cell
Mucus Cell
-makes mucus
-mucus protects stomach lining
Chief Cell
-secretes pepsinogen
-contact with HCL converts pepsinogen to pepsin (active enzyme)
Parietal Cell
-secretes HCl (hydrochloric acid)
Small Intestine
-longest section of digestive system (~20 ft long)
-most digestion of carbs, proteins and fats occurs here
-nutrients absorbed into blood stream
-three parts: duodenum, jejunum, ileum
Digestion of Carbohydrates
-Starch (plants and Glycogen (animals)
-broken down into glucose
-starts in mouth with salivary amylase
-continues in small intestine with pancreatic amylase
Digestion of proteins
-broken down into amino acids
-broken down by pepsin secreted in stomach and trypsin secreted by pancreas
Digestion of Lipids/Fats
-broken down into fatty acids and glycerol
-breakdown of fats requires bile secreted by liver and lipase secreted by pancreas
Digestion of Nucleic Acids
-broken down into nucleotides
-A,T,C,G,U
-broken down by pancreatic nucleases
Duodenum
-first portion of small intestine
-where acid chyme from stomach mixes with digestive juices from pancreas, liver and gall bladder
-buffer in juices neutralizes acid chime, turning it to chyme
Liver
-accessory digestive organ
-produces bile to emulsify/aid absorption of fats
-stores excess glucose as glycogen
-detoxification of poisons
-degradation of non-functional red blood cells
Bile
-produced by liver
-stored in gall bladder
-released into small intestine to emulsify fat globules, turning the globules into single fat molecules
Lipase
-enzyme produced in pancreas
-digests single fat molecules into glycerol and fatty acids
Jejunum
-second section of small intestine
-functions in absorption of nutrients
-contains villi and microvilli
Ileum
-last section of small intestine
-functions in absorption of nutrients
-contains villi and microvilli
Villi
-finger like projections that absorb nutrients from food
-connected to blood vessels to take nutrients to bloodstream
Microvilli
-finger like projections that absorb nutrients
-cover villi
Hepatic Portal Vein
-carries nutrient rich blood from villi to liver
-liver detoxifies absorbed organic materials
Large Intestine
-aka colon
-connected to small intestine
-5 feet long
-larger in diameter than small intestine
-major function is to absorb water
Rectum
-stores feces until eliminated
Anus
-Undigested waste excreted as feces
Gall Bladder
-Stores bile from liver and empties into small intestine
Pancreas
-produces digestive enzymes
-produces buffer that neutralizes acidity of stomach acid
Herbivore (Cow) Digestive System
-Mouth
-Esophagus
-Rumen
-Reticulum
-Omasum
-Abomasum
-Intestines
Multi-Chambered Stomach
-found in herbivores (cows)
-Reticulum
-Rumen
-Omasum
-Abomasum
Reticulum
-filters items swallowed, like sieve
Rumen
-contains bacteria that breaks down grass
Omasum
-churns food regurgitated to form a slurry
Abomasum
-enzymatic breakdown of food
Excretory System
-central to homeostasis
-Dispose of metabolic waste
-Maintain water balance
-regulate osmosis
Marine Birds Nasal Glands
-removes excess sodium chloride (salt
-allows marine birds to drink salt water without ill effect
Forms of Nitrogenous Waste
-Ammonia (aquatic animals
-Urea (mammals, most amphibians)
-Uric Acid (birds, reptiles, insects)
Ammonia
-very toxic
-secreted by aquatic animals
-needs to be surrounded by water to dilute
Urea
-excreted by most terrestrial mammals
-100,000 times less toxic than ammonia
-conversion of ammonia to urea requires ATP
-excretion of urea requires less water than ammonia
-produced in liver
-carried to kidneys via blood
-excreted in urine
Uric Acid
-excreted by birds, insects, reptiles, land snails
-relatively nontoxic
-secreted as paste w/ very little water
-more energetically expensive to produce, requires more ATP than urea
Protonephridium
-excretory system of flatworms
-tubules that branch through the body
-sweat out urine through pores
Metanephridia
-excretory system of earthworms
-each segment of worm has one
-made of collecting tubule, bladder, external opening pore
-waste excreted through sweat
Malpighian Tubules
-excretory system of insects
-tubules open into digestive system
-uric acid sent through digestive system
-excreted with feces
-relatively dry
Human Excretory System Major Components
-Kidneys
-Ureters
-Bladder
-Urethra
Kidneys
-pair of bean-shaped organs
-produce urine made of urea and water
Ureters
-connect kidneys to bladder
-transport urine
Bladder
-stores urine
Urethra
-passes urine out of body
Kidney Structure
-renal cortex
-renal medulla
-renal artery
-renal vein
-ureter
-renal pelvis
Renal Cortex
-outer layer of kidney
Renal Medulla
-inner part of kidney
-contains collecting ducts, loops of Henle, nephrons, etc
Renal Artery
-carries blood into kidneys
Renal Vein
-carries blood out of kidneys
Renal Pelvis
-area at center of kidney
-urine collected and funneled into ureter
Nephron
-tubule
-functional unit of kidneys
-acts as filter of blood to remove waste
Components of Nephron
-glomerulus
-proximal tubule
-loop of Henle
-distal tubule
-collecting duct
Glomerulus
-beginning of nephron
-ball of capillaries
-surrounded by bowman’s capsule
-acts as filter or sieve
-not selective based on size
-blood pressure forces blood through glomerulus into bowman’s capsule
Proximal Tube
-reabsorbs valuable nutrients back into the blood
-glucose, amino acids, calcium reabsorbed
-rea, toxins, poisons, drugs secreted
Loop of Henle
-made of two parts; descending loop of Henle, ascending loop of Henle
-descending loop of Henle reabsorbs water
-ascending loop of Henle reabsorbs NaCl (sodium chloride; salt)
Distal Tubule
-reabsorbs K+ (potassium)
Collecting Duct
-reabsorbs water to determine dilute or concentrated urine
ADH
-anti-diuretic hormone
-regulates kidney function
-targets collecting duct
-when released, signals kidneys to conserve water
-water reabsorbed by collecting duct, resulting in concentrated urine
-occurs when sweating or not drinking enough water
