BIO 100 Unit 1 / Chptr 1 Flashcards
append-
to hang something: appendicular—pertaining to the upper limbs and lower limbs.
cardi-
heart: pericardium—membrane that surrounds the heart.
cerebr-
brain: cerebrum—largest part of the brain.
cran-
helmet: cranial—pertaining to the part of the skull that surrounds the brain
dors-
back: dorsal—position toward the back of the body.
homeo-
same: homeostasis—maintenance of a stable internal environment.
-logy
-logy, the study of: physiology—study of body functions.
meta-
meta-, change: metabolism—chemical changes in the body.
nas-
nas-, nose: nasal—pertaining to the nose.
orb-
orb-, circle: orbital—pertaining to the portion of the skull that encircles an eye
pariet-
pariet-, wall: parietal membrane—membrane that lines the wall of a cavity.
pelv-
pelv-, basin: pelvic cavity—basin-shaped cavity enclosed by the pelvic bones.
peri-
peri-, around: pericardial membrane—membrane that surrounds the heart.
pleur-
pleur-, rib: pleural membrane—membrane that encloses the lungs within the rib cage.
-stasis
-stasis, standing still: homeostasis—maintenance of a stable internal environment.
super-
super-, above: superior—referring to a body part located above another.
-tomy
-tomy, cutting: anatomy—study of structure, which often involves cutting or removing body parts.
Two major areas of medical science,
anatomy and physiology - address how the body maintains life.
Anatomy
from the Greek for “a cutting up,” examines the structures, or morphology, of body parts—their forms and organization.
Physiology
from the Greek for “relationship to nature,” considers the functions of body parts—what they do and how they do it.
human organism
Body parts form a well-organized unit—the human organism.
atoms
All materials, including those that comprise the human body, are composed of chemicals. Chemicals consist of tiny particles called atoms, which are composed of even smaller subatomic particles. Atoms can join to form molecules, and small molecules may combine to form larger macromolecules.
cell
In humans and other organisms, the basic unit of structure and function is a cell.
organelles
Organelles are composed of assemblies of large molecules, including proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Specialized cells assemble into layers or masses that have specific functions.
Such a group of cells is called a tissue. Groups of different tissues form organs—complex structures with specialized functions—and groups of organs that function closely together comprise organ systems. Interacting organ systems make up an organism.
Subatomic particles - level of organization
levels of organization- Electrons, protons, neutrons
Atom - level of organization
levels of organization - Hydrogen atom, lithium atom
Molecule - level of organization
levels of organization -
Water molecule, glucose molecule
Macromolecule - level of organization
level of organization - Protein molecule, DNA molecule
Organelle - level of organization
level of organization - Mitochondrion, Golgi apparatus, nucleus
cell - level of organization
level of organization - Muscle cell, nerve cell
tissue - level of organization
level of organization - Simple squamous epithelium, bone
organ - level of organization
level of organization - Skin, femur, heart, kidney
organ system - level of organization
level of organization -
Integumentary system, skeletal system, digestive system
organism - level of organization
level of organization - human
The Cell
All living things on Earth consist of cells, from the single-celled bacteria and protozoans, to multicelled organisms like humans. Understanding anatomy and physiology is, in a way, understanding what conditions keep cells alive and well.
-Each cell is bounded by a cell membrane.
internal environment
is the environment within the body in which the cells live.
Homeostasis
is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment.
(Cells involved in reproduction do not have a direct role in maintaining homeostasis, but they have the special role of continuing the species.)
Interdependency of Cells
The fact that different cells contribute to homeostasis in different ways means that cells depend on one another. If some cells aren’t able to function, other cells and even the entire organism may suffer. One example is the loss of cells from the heart as a result of a heart attack. This places an additional workload on remaining heart cells. If the loss of functional cells is substantial, the organism may die.
Structure and Function
Structure and function are interrelated. An understanding of structure illuminates function, and vice versa.
Underlying Mechanisms and Processes—Foundations of Understanding
Cells form more-complex body structures such as tissues, organs, and organ systems, and all contribute to homeostasis through specific mechanisms. These mechanisms will repeat throughout this book, so once you learn them you will have a head start on upcoming chapters.
Gradients and Permeability
Substances move between cells and throughout the body in a number of ways. One way is movement from high to low, said to be down a gradient. In the case of blood flow, or air moving in and out of the lungs, the movement is down a pressure gradient, from high pressure to low pressure. Substances also move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration, down a concentration gradient, by a process called diffusion.
Cellular Differentiation (Gene Leads to Protein Leads to Function)
The wide range of cellular structures and the functions that cells perform throughout the body may be surprising considering that all of a person’s cells originate from a single fertilized egg. The cells become specialized by the process of cellular differentiation. Different cell types, such as muscle cells and nerve cells, access the information encoded in different genes to make specific proteins. The proteins that any cell makes determine that cell’s function.
Cell Membrane Mechanisms
The cell membrane determines which substances can enter a cell and which cannot. It also allows cells to respond to certain signals, but to ignore other signals.
Cell-to-Cell Communication
Cooperation among cells requires that they be able to communicate with each other. This occurs through a variety of mechanisms, many of which involve the cell membrane and specialized molecules on the membrane called membrane receptors.
Feedback Loops
For systems to maintain homeostasis, cells must signal other cells when the internal environment has been compromised so that adjustments can be made. When the instability has been corrected, cells must signal that the adjustments are no longer necessary. The mechanisms that accomplish these changes are called homeostatic mechanisms, and they work through a form of cell-to-cell communication called a feedback loop.
Balance
In order to maintain the internal environment relatively constant, the body must replace substances that are lost and eliminate substances that are in excess.
Energy Processes
All of the processes in the body involve some form of energy, whether heat energy, which keeps cells chemically active, or energy released from certain chemical reactions in a form that cells can use.
metabolism
the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life.
Water -
Human life depends on it: Requirements of Organisms
is the most abundant substance in the body. It is required for a variety of metabolic processes, and it provides the environment in which most of them take place. Water also carries substances in organisms and is important in regulating body temperature.
Food
Human life depends on it: Requirements of Organisms
refers to substances that provide organisms with necessary chemicals (nutrients) in addition to water. Nutrients supply energy and raw materials for building new living matter.
Oxygen
Human life depends on it: Requirements of Organisms
is a gas that makes up about one-fifth of the air. It is used to release energy from nutrients. The energy, in turn, is used to drive metabolic processes.
Heat
Human life depends on it: Requirements of Organisms
is a form of energy present in our environment. It is also a product of metabolic reactions and our body temperature depends in part on heat from the chemical reactions taking place in the body. Furthermore, the amount of heat present in the body partly controls the rate at which these reactions occur. Temperature is a measure of the amount of heat.
Pressure
Human life depends on it: Requirements of Organisms
is an application of force on an object or substance.
In humans, this pressure plays an important role in breathing. Similarly, organisms living under water are subjected to hydrostatic pressure—a pressure a liquid exerts—due to the weight of water above them. In complex animals, such as humans, heart action produces blood pressure (another form of hydrostatic pressure), which keeps blood flowing through blood vessels.
extracellular fluid
Extracellular fluid includes the liquid portion of the blood, the plasma, and the interstitial fluid, or tissue fluid, which is found outside of the blood vessels.
interstitial fluid
Interstitial fluid is in direct contact with cells throughout the body. All living cells contain water, along with substances dissolved in it, called intracellular fluid. Structures called cell membranes separate intracellular and extracellular fluids.
Receptors
They provide information about specific conditions (stimuli) in the internal environment. A receptor may be as small as a cell or even a protein that is part of a cell.
control center
decision-maker, that includes a set point, which is a particular value, such as body temperature at 37°C (Celsius) or 98.6°F (Fahrenheit)
Effectors
such as muscles or glands, take action. They cause appropriate responses.
negative feedback
In most homeostatic mechanisms, effectors are activated (or deactivated) such that conditions return toward normal. As this happens, the deviation from the set point progressively lessens, and the effector activity gradually returns to original levels. Such responses are said to operate by negative feedback (negative feedback loops), because the deviation from the set point is corrected (moves in the opposite, or negative, direction) and because the correction reduces the response of the effectors. This latter aspect is important because it prevents a correction from going too far.
positive feedback
In some cases, homeostatic mechanisms operate by positive feedback (positive feedback loops), in which a change is not reversed but intensified, and the effector activity is initially increased rather than turned off. An example is the distorted sound that occurs during a concert or a speech if the volume on the amplifier is too high
axial (ak′se-al) portion
which includes the head, neck, and trunk, and an appendicular (ap″en-dik′u-lar) portion
Within the axial portion are the cranial cavity
appendicular (ap″en-dik′u-lar) portion,
which includes the upper and lower limbs.
cranial cavity
which houses the brain; the vertebral canal
vertebral canal (spinal cavity)
which contains the spinal cord and is surrounded by sections of the backbone (vertebrae); the thoracic (tho-ras′ik) cavity; and the abdominopelvic (ab-dom′ĭ-no-pel′vik) cavity.
viscera
relating to the viscera.
“the visceral nervous system”
relating to deep inward feelings rather than to the intellect.
“the voters’ visceral fear of change”
thoracic
The thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominopelvic cavity by a broad, thin muscle called the diaphragm (di′ah-fram) When it is at rest, this muscle curves upward into the thorax like a dome. When it contracts during inhalation, it presses down upon the abdominal viscera. The wall of the thoracic cavity is composed of skin, skeletal muscles, and bones.
mediastinum
A compartment called the mediastinum (me″de-as-ti′num) extends forward to the sternum and backward to the vertebral column. It forms a boundary between the right and left sides of the thoracic cavity. The mediastinum contains most of the thoracic cavity viscera (including the heart, esophagus, trachea, and thymus) except for the lungs. The right and left lungs are on either side of the mediastinum.
abdominopelvic (ab-dom′ĭ-no-pel′vik) cavity.
The abdominopelvic cavity, which includes an upper abdominal portion and a lower pelvic portion, extends from the diaphragm to the floor of the pelvis. Its wall primarily consists of skin, skeletal muscles, and bones. The viscera within the abdominal cavity include the stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, kidneys, and the small and large intestines.
pelvic cavity
The pelvic cavity is the portion of the abdominopelvic cavity enclosed by the pelvic bones. It contains the terminal end of the large intestine, the urinary bladder, and the internal reproductive organs.
Smaller cavities within the head include the following:
Oral cavity, containing the teeth and tongue
Nasal cavity, connecting with several air-filled sinuses
Orbital cavities, containing the eyes and associated skeletal muscles and nerves
Middle ear cavities, containing the middle ear bones
serous membranes
line the walls of the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and fold back to cover the organs within these cavities. These membranes secrete a slippery serous fluid that separates the layer lining the wall of the cavity (parietal layer) from the layer covering an organ (visceral layer).
visceral pleural (ploo′ral) membranes
The space between the membranes (called the pleural cavity) is filled with a thin, lubricating liquid (called pleural fluid). The visceral pleura is the thin, slippery membrane that covers the surface of the lungs and dips into the areas separating the different lobes of the lungs (called the hilum ).
peritoneal (per″-ĭ-to-ne′al) membranes
A parietal peritoneum lines the wall of the abdominopelvic cavity, and a visceral peritoneum covers most of the organs in the abdominopelvic cavity. The potential space between these membranes is called the peritoneal cavity
integumentary (in-teg-u-men′tar-e) system
include the skin and accessory organs such as the hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands. These parts protect underlying tissues, help regulate body temperature, house a variety of sensory receptors, and synthesize certain products.
skeletal (skel′eĕ-tal) system
consists of the bones as well as the ligaments and cartilages that bind bones together at joints. These parts provide frameworks and protective shields for softer tissues, serve as attachments for muscles, and act together with muscles when body parts move. Tissues within bones also produce blood cells and store inorganic salts.
muscular (mus′ku-lar) system
The muscles are the organs of the muscular (mus′ku-lar) system. By contracting and pulling their ends closer together, muscles provide the forces that move body parts. Muscles also help maintain posture and are the primary source of body heat.
nervous (ner′vus) system
consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs. Nerve cells within these organs use a bioelectrical signal called an impulse (an action potential) in combination with a chemical signal (a neurotransmitter) to communicate with one another and with muscles and glands.
innervated
past tense: innervated; past participle: innervated
supply (an organ or other body part) with nerves.
endocrine (en′do-krin) system
includes all the glands that secrete chemical messengers, called hormones.
cardiovascular (kahr″de-o-vas′ku-lur) system
includes the heart, arteries, capillaries, veins, and blood.
lymphatic (lim-fat′ik) system
is the other transport system and is closely associated with the cardiovascular system. It is composed of the lymphatic vessels, lymph fluid, lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen. This system transports some of the fluid from the spaces in tissues (tissue fluid) back to the bloodstream and carries certain fatty substances away from the digestive organs.
digestive (di-jest′tiv) system
The digestive system includes the mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, and large intestine
receive foods and then break down food molecules into simpler forms that can be absorbed into the internal environment. Certain digestive organs also produce hormones and thus function as parts of the endocrine system.
respiratory (re-spi′rah-to″re) system
move air in and out of the body and exchange gases between the blood and the air. Specifically, oxygen passes from air in the lungs into the blood, and carbon dioxide leaves the blood and enters the air in the lungs and then moves out of the body. The nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs are parts of this system
urinary (u′rĭ-ner″e) system
consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys remove wastes from blood and assist in maintaining the body’s water and electrolyte concentrations. (Electrolytes are chemicals, related to salts.) The product of these activities is urine. Other parts of the urinary system store urine and transport it to outside the body
Reproduction
is the process of producing offspring (progeny). Cells reproduce when they divide and give rise to new cells
reproductive (re″pro-duk′tiv) system
of an organism, however, produces whole new organisms like itself
The male reproductive system includes the scrotum, testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, urethra, and penis. These structures produce and maintain the male sex cells, or sperm cells (spermatozoa). The male reproductive system also transfers these cells into the female reproductive tract and produces male sex hormones.
The female reproductive system consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, and vulva. These organs produce and maintain the female sex cells (oocytes), transport these cells in the female reproductive system, and receive the male’s sperm cells, which may fertilize an oocyte. The female reproductive system also supports development of an embryo, carries a fetus to term, functions in the birth process, and produces female sex hormones.
Integumentary
Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands
Protect tissues, regulate body temperature, support sensory receptors
skeletal
Bones, ligaments, cartilages
Provide framework, protect soft tissues, provide attachments for muscles, produce blood cells, store inorganic salts
muscular
Muscles
Cause movements, maintain posture, produce body heat
nervous
Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs
Detect changes, receive and interpret sensory information, stimulate muscles and glands
endocrine
Glands that secrete hormones (pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, and thymus)
Control metabolic activities of body structures
cardiovascular
Heart, arteries, capillaries, veins
Move blood through blood vessels and transport substances throughout body
lymphatic
Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen
Return tissue fluid to the blood, carry certain absorbed food molecules, defend the body against infection
digestive
Mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small and large intestines
Receive, break down, and absorb food; eliminate unabsorbed material
respiratory
Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
Intake and output of air, exchange of gases between air and blood
urinary
Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
Remove wastes from blood, maintain water and electrolyte balance, store and eliminate urine
reporoductive
Male: scrotum, testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, urethra, penis Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, vulva
Produce and maintain sperm cells, transfer sperm cells into female reproductive tract Produce and maintain oocytes, receive sperm cells, support development of an embryo, and function in birth process
Superior
means a part is above another part. (The thoracic cavity is superior to the abdominopelvic cavity.)
inferior
means a part is below another part. (The neck is inferior to the head.)
anterior
(ventral) means toward the front. (The eyes are anterior to the brain.)
posterior
(dorsal) means toward the back. (The pharynx is posterior to the oral cavity.)
medial
refers to an imaginary midline dividing the body into equal right and left halves. A part is medial if it is closer to midline than another part. (The nose is medial to the eyes.)
lateral
means toward the side, away from midline. (The ears are lateral to the eyes.)
bilateral
refers to paired structures, one on each side of mid-line. (The lungs are bilateral.)
ipsilateral
refers to structures on the same side. (The right lung and the right kidney are ipsilateral.)
contralateral
refers to structures on the opposite side. (A patient with a fractured right leg would have to bear weight on the contralateral—in this case, left—lower limb.)
proximal
describes a part closer to a point of attachment to the trunk than another body part. (The elbow is proximal to the wrist.) Proximal may also refer to another reference point such as the proximal tubules, which are closer to the filtering structures in the kidney.
distal
is the opposite of proximal. It means a particular body part is farther from a point of attachment to the trunk. (The fingers are distal to the wrist.) Distal may also refer to another reference point, such as decreased blood flow distal to blockage of a coronary artery.
superficial
means near the surface. (The epidermis is the superficial layer of the skin.)
deep
describes more internal parts. (The dermis is the deep layer of the skin.)
sagittal
refers to a lengthwise cut that divides the body into right and left portions. If a sagittal section passes along the midline and divides the body into equal parts, it is called median (midsagittal). A sagittal section lateral to midline is called parasagittal.
transverse
(horizontal) refers to a cut that divides the body into superior and inferior portions.
frontal
(coronal) refers to a section that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.
epigastric region
is the upper middle portion.
right and left hypochondriac regions
are on the right/ left side of the epigastric region.
umbilical region
is the central portion.
right and left lateral (lumbar) regions
are on the right/ left side of the umbilical region.
pubic (hypogastric) region
is the lower middle portion.
right and left inguinal (iliac) regions
are on the right/ left side of the pubic region.
abdominal
abdominal (ab-dom′ĭ-nal) region between the thorax and pelvis
acromial
acromial (ah-kro′me-al) point of the shoulder
antebrachial
antebrachial (an″te-bra′ke-al) forearm
antecubital
antecubital (an″te-ku′bĭ-tal) anterior surface of the elbow
axillary
axillary (ak′sĭ-ler″e) armpit
brachial
brachial (bra′ke-al) arm
buccal
buccal (buk′al) cheek
carpal
carpal (kar′pal) wrist
celiac
celiac (se′le-ak) abdomen
cephalic
cephalic (seĕ-fal′ik) head
cervical
cervical (ser′vĕ-kal) neck
costal
costal (kos′tal) ribs
coxal
coxal (kok′sal) hip
crural
crural (krōōr′al) leg
cubital
cubital (ku′bĭ-tal) elbow
digital
digital (dij′ĭ-tal) finger or toe
dorsal
dorsal (dor′sal) back
femoral
femoral (fem′or-al) thigh
frontal
frontal (frun′tal) forehead
genital
genital (jen′i-tal) external reproductive organs
gluteal
gluteal (gloo′te-al) buttocks
inguinal
inguinal (ing′gwĭ-nal) depressed area of the abdominal wall near the thigh (groin)
lumbar
lumbar (lum′bar) region of the lower back between the ribs and the pelvis (loin)
mammary
mammary (mam′er-e) breast
mental
mental (men′tal) chin
nasal
nasal (na′zal) nose
occipital
occipital (ok-sip′ĭ-tal) inferior posterior region of the head
oral
oral (o′ral) mouth
orbital
orbital (or′bi-tal) eye cavity
otic
otic (o′tik) ear
palmar
palmar (pahl′mar) palm of the hand
patellar
patellar (pah-tel′ar) anterior part of the knee
pectoral
pectoral (pek′tor-al) anterior chest
pedal
pedal (ped′al) foot
pelvic
pelvic (pel′vik) pelvis
perineal
perineal (per″ĭ-ne′al) the inferior-most region of the trunk between the thighs and the buttocks (perineum)
plantar
plantar (plan′tar) sole of the foot
popliteal
popliteal (pop″lĭ-te′al) area posterior to the knee
sacral
sacral (sa′kral) posterior region between the hip bones
sternal
sternal (ster′nal) middle of the thorax, anteriorly
sural
sural (su′ral) calf of the leg
tarsal
tarsal (tahr′sal) ankle
umbilical
umbilical (um-bil′ĭ-kal) navel
vertebral
vertebral (ver′te-bral) spinal column
cardiology
cardiology (kar″de-ol′o-je) Branch of medical science dealing with the heart and heart diseases.
dermatology
dermatology (der″mah-tol′o-je) Study of skin and its diseases.
endocrinology
endocrinology (en″do-krĭ-nol′o-je) Study of hormones, hormone-secreting glands, and associated diseases.
epidemiology
epidemiology (ep″ĭ-de″me-ol′o-je) Study of the factors that contribute to determining the distribution and frequency of health-related conditions within a defined human population.
gastroenterology
gastroenterology (gas″tro-en″ter-ol′o-je) Study of the stomach and intestines, as well as their diseases.
geriatrics
geriatrics (jer″e-at′riks) Branch of medicine dealing with older individuals and their medical problems.
gerontology
gerontology (jer″on-tol′o-je) Study of the process of aging and the various problems of older individuals.
gynecology
gynecology (gi″neĕ-kol-o-je) Study of the female reproductive system and its diseases.
hematology
hematology (hem″ah-tol′o-je) Study of the blood and blood diseases.
histology
histology (his-tol′o-je) Study of the structure and function of tissues (microscopic anatomy).
immunology
immunology (im″u-nol′o-je) Study of the body’s resistance to disease.
neonatology
neonatology (ne″o-na-tol′o-je) Study of newborns and the treatment of their disorders.
nephrology
nephrology (neĕ-frol′o-je) Study of the structure, function, and diseases of the kidneys.
neurology
neurology (nu-rol′o-je) Study of the nervous system in health and disease.
obstetrics
obstetrics (ob-stet′riks) Branch of medicine dealing with pregnancy and childbirth.
oncology
oncology (ong-kol′o-je) Study of cancers.
Opthalmology
ophthalmology (of″thal-mol′o-je) Study of the eyes and eye diseases.
orthopedics
orthopedics (or″tho-pe′diks) Branch of medicine dealing with the muscular and skeletal systems and their problems.
otolaryngology
otolaryngology (o″to-lar″in-gol′o-je) Study of the ears, throat, larynx, and their diseases.
pathology
pathology (pah-thol′o-je) Study of structural and functional changes within the body associated with disease.
pediatrics
pediatrics (pe″de-at′riks) Branch of medicine dealing with children and their diseases.
pharmacology
pharmacology (fahr″mah-kol′o-je) Study of drugs and their uses in the treatment of diseases.
podiatry
podiatry (po-di′ah-tre) Study of the care and treatment of the feet.
psychiatry
psychiatry (si-ki′ah-tre) Branch of medicine dealing with the mind and its disorders.
radiology
radiology (ra″de-ol′o-je) Study of X rays and radioactive substances, as well as their uses in diagnosing and treating diseases.
toxicology
toxicology (tok″sĕ-kol′o-je) Study of poisonous substances and their effects on physiology.
urology
urology (u-rol′o-je) Branch of medicine dealing with the urinary and male reproductive systems and their diseases.
