BI-242: Test 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Describe the process of exchanging gases
A
Gases in and out between lung and air
Gases exchange between capillaries and lungs
Gases transport in the bloodstream
Gases exchange between capillaries and tissues
Cellular respiration
2
Q
What is pulmonary ventilation?
A
Gases in and out between lung and air; movement of air into and out of lungs
Aka breathing
3
Q
What is external respiration?
A
Gases exchange between blood and lungs; O2 and CO2 exchange
4
Q
What is internal respiration?
A
Gases exchange between capillaries and tissues; O2 and CO2 exchange between systemic blood vessels and tissues
5
Q
What is cellular respiration?
A
Making ATP and metabolites
6
Q
5 processes of respiration
A
Pulmonary ventilation External respiration Transport Internal respiration Cellular respiration
7
Q
Organs of the upper respiratory tract
A
Nose, pharynx, larynx
8
Q
Organs of the lower respiratory tract
A
Trachea, Bronchus, bronchiole, respiratory zone
9
Q
Organs of the lung
A
Bronchus, bronchiole, alveoli
10
Q
What is the pharynx?
A
Passage for both food and air One end: nose, mouth Another end: larynx, esophagus Made of muscle only Not moveable
11
Q
What is the larynx?
A
Air only; voice production One end: pharynx Another end: trachea Made of mainly cartilages Is moveable Contains voice box
12
Q
What is the epiglottis?
A
Prevents food from entering larynx
Made of elastic cartilage
13
Q
What is the trachea?
A
One end: larynx
Another end: 2 bronchi
Made of 20 C shaped hyaline cartilage rings
Has 4 layers: (inside) mucosa, submucosa, hyaline cartilage, adventitia (outside)
14
Q
What makes up the mucosa layer of the trachea?
A
Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells on connective tissue
15
Q
What is the adventitia of the trachea
A
Outermost layer (serosa)
16
Q
Bronchus characteristics
A
One end: trachea
Another end: bronchiole
Right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical than left bronchus
3 branches: primary, secondary, tertiary
Tertiary bronchus leads to primary bronchiole
17
Q
Bronchiole characteristics
A
One end: bronchus
Another end: alveoli
From cartilage to elastic fibers and smooth muscles
From pseudostratified columnar to simple cuboidal epithelium
Cilia decreases to non
18
Q
What’s the smallest type of bronchioles?
A
Terminal bronchioles
19
Q
3 parts of the respiratory zone
A
Respiratory bronchiole
Alveolar duct
Alveoli
20
Q
Function of the respiratory zone
A
Only alveoli like are to exchange gases
Pulmonary arteriole is full of deoxygenated blood; pulmonary venule is full of oxygenated blood
21
Q
3 layers of the respiratory membrane
A
Simple squamous epithelium
Fused basement membrane
Continuous capillary endothelium
Blood-air barrier or membrane
Alveolar- capillary barrier or membrane
22
Q
3 types of cells in the respiratory zone
A
Type 1 alveolar cells
Type 2 alveolar cells
Macrophages
23
Q
Describe type 1 alveolar cells
A
Simple squamous epithelium Most surface area Less number Organelles clustered around the nucleus Large areas of free cytoplasm Unable to replicate Susceptible to toxic insults
24
Q
Describe type 2 alveolar cells
A
Secrete surfactant
Most number
Stem calls giving rise to more type 1 cells
25
Describe macrophages
Least number
| Dust cells
26
List the different types of macrophages and their location
```
Lung: alveolar macrophage (dust cell)
Skin: dendritic cell (Langerhans cells)
CNS: microglia
Liver: Kuffer cell
Bone: osteoclasts
```
27
Describes the differences between the two lungs
Left lung smaller than right
Left lung have 2 lobes, while the right one has 3
Left lung has cardiac notch
28
What’s in the mediastinum surface of the lung
Pulmonary artery and vein; bronchus; nerves; lymphatic vessels
29
What is bronchopulmonary segments?
Portion of lung supplied by the tertiary bronchus (segmental bronchus)
Anatomical and functional units
30
Epithelium that makes up trachea, bronchus, bronchiole, and alveoli
Trachea, bronchus: ciliated pseudostratified
Bronchiole: simple cuboidal epithelium
Alveaoli: simple squamous epithelium
31
What makes up the trachea, bronchus, bronchiole, and alveoli
Trachea: cartilage
Bronchus: less cartilage
Bronchiole: no cartilage, but smooth muscle
Alveoli: no cartilage and no muscle
32
Pulmonary arteries supply...
Deoxygenated blood to respiratory zone (alveoli)
33
Pulmonary veins contain...
Oxygenated blood
34
Bronchial arteries supply...
oxygenated blood to non-respiratory zone (no alveoli)
| -arise from thoracic aorta to azygos vein
35
Characteristics of pulmonary circulation
Low pressure, high volume
36
What does the parietal pleura line? Visceral pleura?
Parietal: thoracic cavity
Visceral: attaches to the lung
37
What is the pleural cavity filled with?
Intrapleural fluid
38
Mechanic of breathing where gases flow into lungs? Out of lungs?
Inspiration and expiration
39
Muscles involved in breathing
Diaphragm and intercostal muscles (no skeletal muscles within lungs)
40
What is the force that moves air into the lungs?
Atmospheric pressure
41
What is intrapulmonary pressure
Pressure inside respiratory tract; can be positive or negative; varies
42
What is Intrapleural pressure
Pressure inside pleural cavity; varies but is always negative
43
What is transpulmonary pressure?
Intrapulmonary pressure-intrapleural pressure=4mmHg constant and always positive
44
All the mechanics of breathing (intrapulmonary/intrapleural/transpulmonary pressure) do what?
Prevent the lung from collapse
45
What causes pneumothorax (collapsed lung)
If intrapleural pressure is 0 or positive
46
Instrument for measuring respiratory volumes and capacities
Spirometer
47
On a spirometer, what means inspire and what means expire?
Curve up-inspire
| Curve down-expire
48
What is tidal volume?
Amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under resting condition
49
What is inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after normal tidal volume inspiration
50
What is expiratory reserve volume?
Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after normal tidal volume expiration
51
What is residual volume
Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration
52
What equals inspiratory capacity?
TV+IRV
53
What is vital capacity?
Max amount of air that can be expired SLOWLY after a max inspiratory effort
VC=TV+IRV+ERV
54
Difference between forced vital capacity (FVC) and vital capacity (VC)
FVC: has expelled forcefully and rapidly
VC: has expelled slowly
55
Function of spirometry
Contributes to diagnose pulmonary diseases
56
What does Total lung capacity equal?
TV+IRV+ERV+RV
57
What happens in the alveoli during gas exchange?
O2 goes down and CO2 goes up
58
How is oxygen transported in the blood?
Binding to hemoglobin, producing oxyhemoglobin
59
What is ventilation-perfusion coupling?
Perfusion-blood flow reaching alveoli
Ventilation-amount of gas reaching alveoli
Ventilation and perfusion matched (coupled) for efficient gas exchange
60
What happens when alveolar O2 is low/high in ventilation-perfusion coupling
High O2: pulmonary arterioles dilate
| Low O2: pulmonary arterioles constrict
61
Organs of the digestive system (alimentary canal)
Mouth, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, colon, anus
62
Other digestive organs
Teeth, salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gallbladder
63
How many teeth do we have?
32
64
```
Differences between bone and teeth
Composition
Peripheral membrane
Regenerative power
Medulla cavity contents
```
```
Composition:
bone=collagen; teeth=dentine
Peripheral membrane: bone=periosteum; teeth=enamel
Regenerative power:
Bones=very strong; teeth=none
Medulla cavity contents:
Bone=bone marrow; teeth=dental pulp
```
65
What do salivary glands produce?
Salivary amylase
66
Amylase function?
Starting point of carbohydrate digestion-from carbohydrate to smaller sugar (partial digestion)
67
How does the nervous system effect your salivary glands?
Parasympathetic stimulation increases salivary glands secretion; sympathetic nervous system decreases its secretion
68
What is the esophagus and oral cavity made out of?
Stratified squamous epithelium
69
What is the stomach to large intestine made out of?
Simple columnar epithelium
70
Function of mouth and esophagus
Mastication and deglutition
Starting point of carbohydrate digestion
No absorption
71
Where is the human stomach
In abdominal cavity
72
4 parts of the stomach?
Cardia
Fundus
Body
Pylorus
73
2 sphincters of the stomach
Cardiac sphincter and pyloric sphincter
74
Where is the cardiac sphincter
Separates esophagus from stomach
75
Where is the pyloric sphincter
Separates stomach from duodenum
76
2 curvatures of stomach and where they are
Greater curvature- convex lateral surface
| Lesser curvature- concave medial surface
77
What are two omentas made out of
Folded visceral peritoneum; fat deposition
78
What does mesentery part of the stomach do?
Attaches abdominal organs at the posterior abdominal wall; folded visceral peritoneum
79
What are the 4 layers of the stomach?
Mucosa, submucosa, muscle, and serosa
80
What kind of surface epithelium is the mucosa made of?
Simple columnar epithelium; folds to form gastric pits
81
What kind of cells are on the surface epithelium of the mucosa
Mucous cells, parietal cells, chief cells, and G cells
82
What do mucous cells do?
Secrete alkaline, viscous liquid protecting stomach, most top of pit
83
What do parietal cells do?
Make HCL and gastric acid is made within epithelium by CO2
84
What do chief cells do?
Make pepsinogen
85
What does G cells do
Enteroendocrine cells: gastrin
| Regulate acid secretion
86
What is the first organ to digest protein and how?
Stomach; pepsinogen, activated by HCL, becomes active pepsin to digest protein
87
What is the function of pepsin in the stomach (physical and chemical)
Digest proteins into smaller polypeptides
Physical functions:
Mechanical breakdown; delivers chyme to small intestine
Chemical functions:
Enzymatic digestion of proteins; no absorption for food but alcohol
88
What parasympathetic nerve and hormone help in the regulation of gastric secretions
Vagus nerve and gastrin
89
What bacteria is the main reason for gastritis
Helicobacter pylori
90
Explain digestion in mouth
Salivary amylase for carbohydrate
91
Explain digestion in stomach
Pepsin and HCL for protein
92
What is the major duodenal papilla
Opening of pancreatic and hepatic duct into duodenum
93
Duodenum characteristics
Curves around head of pancreas
| Bile acids and pancreatic juice enter duodenum through major duodenal papilla
94
Where is the liver located
Upper right quadrant of the abdominal cavity; largest internal organ; lesser omentum anchors liver to stomach
95
Functions of the liver
Protein, lipid, and carbohydrate metabolism; bile production
96
What enters the hepatic hilum
```
Portal vein
Hepatic artery
Bile duct
Vagus nerve
Lymphatic vessels
```
97
Where does the portal vein drain blood from?
The GI tract
98
Portal vein characteristics
Receives nutrients from superior mesenteric veins and sends them into liver; first processed by liver before systemic circulation
99
Does the mesenteric veins with nutrients drain into the heart directly?
No
100
What are the two capillary systems that are connected directly by the portal vein?
Intestinal and hepatic capillaries
101
Where does the hepatic artery branch from?
Celiac trunk of abdominal aorta; mixes with portal vein into liver capillaries; then back into inferior vena cava
102
What kind of capillaries are in the liver?
Sinusoid
103
What are liver lobules?
Hexagonal structural and functional units
104
Central vein
Center of hepatic lobule; receiving mixed blood from liver sinusoids peripherally
105
Connective tissue in liver?
At peripheral with hepatic arterioles and portal venules
106
Liver blood vessels
Portal vein and hepatic artery in, portal venules and hepatic arterioles in, capillary: liver sinusoids, central vein out and then fuse hepatic veins out, the inferior vena cava out
Portal vein and hepatic artery fuse.
Nutrients and oxygen used by liver cells in sinusoid
107
Function of gallbladder
Stores and squeezes out bile acids, NOT makes
108
Where is the common hepatic duct?
Leaves liver
109
Where is the cystic duct?
Connects with gallbladder
110
Where is the bile duct?
Formed by union of common hepatic and cystic ducts for bile acids excretion
111
Bile acids are amphipathic meaning...?
Both hydrophilic and hydrophobic heads present
112
What is emulsification by bile acids?
Break down of large fats (water insoluble) into smaller droplets (water soluble)
Aid in the absorption of fatty acids
Terminal digestion of fat
Needs bile acids
113
What is enterohepatic circulation
Recycles bile salts
Bile salts->duodenum->reabsorbed from ileum->hepatic portal blood
->liver->secreted into bile
114
Where is the pancreas?
Mostly retroperitoneal
| Head encircled by duodenum
115
Endocrine function of the pancreas
Pancreatic islets (langerhans) secrete insulin and glucagon into blood
116
Exocrine function of the pancreas
Pancreatic acini secrete pancreatic juice into duct and then into duodenum
117
What is pancreatic juice?
Alkaline solution that neutralizes chyme
118
What is the exocrine function of pancreatic juice
Enzymes- only pancreas secretes three types of enzymes that can digest three major nutrients (carbs, fats, proteins)
119
What are the three types of enzymes (pancreatic juice)
Pancreatic amylase
Pancreatic lipase
Trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen
120
What does pancreatic amylase do?
```
Digests carbohydrates
From carbs to smaller sugar
Partial digestion of carbs
Stronger than salivary amylase
Needs intestinal enzymes
```
121
What does pancreatic lipase do?
Digests fats
Terminal digestion of fat
Needs bile acids
122
What does trysinogen and chymotrypsinogen do?
Inactive form
Digests proteins after activation
Partial digestion of protein
Needs intestinal enzymes
123
What activates trypsinogen?
Enteropeptidase (enterokinase)
124
Process of activation of trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen
Trypsin and chymotrypsin are secreted in inactive form (trypsinogen)
Trypsinogen is converted to trypsin by enteropeptidase upon reaching the small intestine
Chymotrypsinogen is converted to chymotrypsin by trypsin
125
Carbohydrate polysaccharide: food examples, enzymes, and end product
Food: sugar, fiber (veggies), starch (bread)
Enzymes: amylase, BB enzyme
End product: glucose
126
Protein polypeptide: food examples, enzymes, and end product
Food: egg white, fish, meat
Enzymes: pepsin (HCL), trypsin, chymotrypsin, BB enzymes
End product: Amino acids
127
Fat triglyceride: food examples, enzymes, and end product
Food: saturated fat (meat), unsaturated fat (vegetable oil)
Enzymes: lipase (bile acids)
End product: fatty acids, glycerol
128
Where does the small intestine start and finish
From pyloric sphincter to ileocecal valve
129
What are the 3 parts of the small intestine
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
130
Function of jejunum
Digestion and absorption
| Nutrients are absorbed into mesenteric veins and then fused into hepatic portal vein; transports the residues to ileum
131
Microanatomy of the stomach
Mesentery contains arteries and veins of intestine
| Layers are the same as stomach
132
Explain the microanatomy of the mucosa epithelium of the jejunum
Simple columnar cells
| Only monomers such as glucose, amino acids and fatty acids can be absorbed into blood
133
Explain the transportation of nutrients
Almost all monomers of nutrients are transported into mesenteric veins and then portal vein
134
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Salivary amylase in what
Pancreatic amylase in
Pepsin in
Pancreatic trypsin and chymotrypsin in
Pancreatic lipases in
```
```
Mouth
Pancreas
Stomach
Small intestine
Small intestine
```
135
Function of ileum
Reabsorb bile acids
Almost no absorption of nutrients
No digestion
136
Name all the parts of the large intestine
From ileocecal valve to anus
Cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anus
Surrounds small intestine
137
Functions of large intestine
Continue digestion by bacteria
138
Nerves for digestive tract: enteric nervous system
| What is it?
Major nerve supply GI tract wall: auto-
Sympathetic NS inhibits digestive activities
Parasympathetic NS stimulates digestive activities
