BI-242 Final Flashcards
What is true about the epicardium?
It is the visceral pericardium
Name the heart valves in the order in which an erythrocytes would pass through then after returning to the heart from the left arm
Tricuspid valve, pulmonary semilunar valve, bicuspid (mitral) valve, aortic semilunar valve
Damage to cells of the AV bundle would prevent the cardiac impulses from reaching what?
Ventricles
List the structures in order that action potential passes
SA node, AV node, atrioventricular bundle, bundle branches, Purkinje fibers
In an ECG, the P wave represents what?
Depolarization of the atria
During the period of ejection in the cardiac cycle, the atrioventricular valves are __________ and the semilunar valves are__________.
Closed, open
Cardiac output is defined as this
Heart rate times stroke volume
In a person who has a damaged left ventricle due to a heart attack, they would experience what
Left ventricle pumps less blood than the right
Blood accumulates in the pulmonary vessels
What structures returns blood to the right atrium
Coronary sinus
Inferior and superior vena cava
All cardiac veins empty into the _______, which then empties into the ________.
Coronary sinus; right atrium
This type of capillary has no gaps between endothelial calls and is less permeable to large molecules and exists in muscle and nervous tissue
Continuous capillaries
List the blood vessels in the order a red blood cell passes through them as it leaves the heart, travels to a tissue , and returns to the heart
Elastic artery, muscular artery, arteriole, capillary, venule, vein
Blood going to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries contains a high concentration of _________ and a low concentration of _________.
Carbon dioxide; oxygen
The left and right internal carotid arteries and the left and right vertebral arteries all contribute to this
Circle of Willis (cerebral arterial circle)
Blood from the arms, shoulders, and head passes through this vessel in order to return blood to the heart
Superior vena cava
The hepatic portal vein is formed by the junction of these vessels
Superior mesenteric and splenic veins
If a person has a systolic pressure of 100mm Hg and a diastolic pressure of 70mm Hg, what is the pulse pressure?
30mm Hg
Venous return would be increased by this
Increased skeletal muscle activity
The colloid osmotic pressure of the blood is caused by this
The presence of proteins in the plasma
Give the vessels in order going from small intestine to the inferior vena cava
Superior mesenteric vein, hepatic portal vein, hepatic vein
During exercise, the blood flow through skeletal muscle may increase up to 20-fold. The cardiac output does not increase that much because of what
Vasoconstriction in the viscera, temporary vasoconstriction of the skin, vasodilation of skeletal muscle blood vessels
List the structures in the order that food encounters then as it passes between small intestine and the rectum
Ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon
What is the major duodenal papilla
The opening of the hepatopancreatic ampulla in the duodenum
The layer of the digestive tract that is in direct contact with the food that is consumed
Mucosa
This kind of epithelium lines the mouth, oropharynx, esophagus and anal canal
Stratified squamous
What is the function of bile
Contains breakdown products from hemoglobin
Emulsifies fat
Saliva contains the digestive enzyme_______, which breaks down starch into_______.
Amylase; maltose
These cells in the gastric glands produce pepsinogen
Chief cells
The brain relies almost entirely on this for energy production
Glucose
About 99% of the body’s energy storage is in the form of this
Lipids
This is the energy currency of the cell
ATP
Vegetarians usually have to be more careful about his or her diet than a person who includes meat in the diet because of this
Plants are not complete protein foods, a variety of plants must be consumed to include all essential amino acids,
Plants contain less protein per unit weight than meat
What organ of the digestive system does not make lipase
Small intestine
Humans can survive most easily without what organ?
Gallbladder
Which of the following can NOT be injected into the blood directly for giving patients nutrients
Maltose
What composes the urinary system
Two kidneys, two ureters, one bladder, one urethra
How do you find the volume of an artery in the urinary system
Volume of vein+volume of ureter
Where are the kidneys located
12th rib; between dorsal body wall and the parietal peritoneum in a retroperitoneal position; right kidney is lower than left one
Functions of kidney
Excreting water, wastes and foreign substances
Secreting hormones: erythropoietin and renin
What does erythropoietin do?
Increases red blood cell production
What does renin do?
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
Increases blood pressure
What is the renal cortex
Outer portion of kidney; lighter color separated from medulla by arcuate arteries and veins
What is the renal medulla
Deep to cortex; darker in color
What is the renal column
Medullary extension of the renal cortex in between the renal pyramids; have branches of renal arteries and veins
What are the renal pyramids
Come-shaped; stripped appearance with papilla pointing to innermost region of kidney; convergence of collecting duct
What is the renal papilla
The point where the renal pyramids empty urine into the minor calyx; apex of the renal pyramids; convergence point of collecting duct
What is the minor calyx
Surrounds papillae of renal pyramids
What is the major calyx
Converged by 3 minor calyces
What is the renal pelvis
Converged by 3 major calyces; only one in one kidney; funnel-like dilated proximal part of the ureter
What is the renal ureter
Connects kidneys with urinary bladder
What is the nephron
Structural and functional unit of kidney responsible for filtering blood and forming urine; renal corpuscle located within cortex
What makes up the renal corpuscle and what does it do
Glomerulus and glomerular capsule; responsible for glomerular filtration and generating primary urine
What is the glomerulus
Fenestrated capillaries with oxygenated blood; connects with afferent and efferent arteries; contacts with DCT
What is the glomerular capsule
Aka Bowman’s capsule
Cup-like sac enclose glomerulus
What’s the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)?
Between Bowman’s capsule and the loop of Henle; responsible for tubular reabsorption
What is the Nephron loop
Between PCT and DCT; contains Loop of Henle; has four limbs (thick descending, thin descending, thin ascending, thick ascending); descending limbs runs into medulla; ascending limbs return back to cortex; concentrate urine
What is the distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
Between nephron loop and CD; connects to one collecting duct; regulates ions and water in urine; influenced by aldosterone; passes near to the original corpuscle to form juxtaglomerular apparatus
What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus
Between renal corpuscle and the returning DCT of the same nephron; makes renin
What is the collecting duct (CD)
Deep in renal pyramids; converges at medullary papilla; generate final urine; release it into minor calyx; final component of the kidney to influence the body’s electrolyte and fluid balance
Nephron function
Controls levels of electrolytes and metabolites; regulates blood volume and blood pressure
Describe the difference between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons Corpuscle location (cortex) Loop location (medulla) Loop length (medulla) Number Capillaries Concentrated urine
Cortical: Farther away Shallow short More Pertubular No Juxtamedullary: Closer to medulla Deep Long Less Vasa recta Yes
Kidney blood supply
Volume of artery=volume of vein + volume of ureter
Volume of artery and volume of vein are NOT equal
Renal arteries
Renal artery Interlobular artery Arcuate artery Radiate artery Afferent artery Glomerulus Efferent arteriole
What does the arcuate artery do?
Separates cortex from medulla
What does the radiate artery do?
Lead to afferent arteriole
What two arterioles connect the glomerulus? And only supply oxygenated blood
Afferent and efferent arteriole
What type of capillary is the glomerulus?
Not typical; fenestrated capillary only responsible for filtration, no exchange
What type of capillaries are in the kidney
Typical; leads to radiate vein; peritubular and vasa recta
Efferent arteriole comes away from glomerulus and leads to peritubular capillary or vasa recta; connect with two capillaries
Definition of glomerular filtration
The plasma is filtered through glomerular filtration membrane
Layers glomerular filtration membrane
- Endothelium of fenestrated capillaries
- Basement membrane
- Podocytes
What does the endothelium of fenestrated capillaries
Filter through fenestrated pores
Prevent filtration of blood cells
What does the basement membrane do
Negatively charged
Preventing filtration of proteins
What podocytes do
Filter through slits between pedicles
Preventing filtration of proteins
What the glomerular filtration membrane filters
Blood cells; proteins
Keep in blood, not in urine
Nearly no difference between plasma and glomerular filtrate
What glomerular filtrate is made of
Primary urine, which has glucose, AA and other ions
What is the filtration force
Hydrostatic pressure
Osmotic pressure
What is hydrostatic pressure caused by
Blood pressure
Explain hydrostatic pressure in glomerulus
Arteriole blood pressure; tends to force fluids out
Explain Hydrostatic pressure in capsule
Tends to force fluids back
What is osmotic pressure caused by
Caused by protein
Explain osmotic pressure in glomerulus
Caused by plasma proteins
Tends to force fluids back
Explain osmotic pressure in capsule
0 mm Hg due to few protein content
Filtration force formula
Hydrostatic pressure in glomerulus = 60 Hydrostatic pressure in capsule = -18 Osmotic pressure glomerulus = -32 Osmotic pressure in capsule = 0 Net filtration pressure (NFP) = 10 mm Hg
What percentage of primary urine will be reabsorbed
99%
What does the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) do?
Complete reabsorption of glucose and AA into pertubular capillaries; water and NaCl
What does the distal convoluted tubule
Increases water reabsorption by aldosterone
What does the collecting duct do
Increases water reabsorption by antidiuretic hormone (ADH);
Final component of the kidney to influence the body’s electrolyte and fluid balance;
Primary urine become final urine
What is tubular secretion
From pertubular capillaries to renal tubular lumen; potassium (K)
What is the bladder made of
Transitional epithelium
What is the internal/external urethral sphincter
Internal: smooth muscle
External: skeletal muscle
Difference between male and female bladder Bladder size Urethra lengthen Germ cells Prostrate gland
Male: Larger Longer Yes Yes Female: Smaller Shorter No No Both urine and semen can pass but at different time
External/internal reproductive organs
External Clitoris=Penis Labia majora=scrotum ovary=testis Internal Labia minora=spongy urethra
Scrotum function
Contains paired testes
Hangs outside abdominopelvic cavity
Where does the scrotum come from
Abdominal wall
Skin + fascia
Characteristics of scrotum
Lower than core body temperature, which is necessary for sperm production
Hot-flaccid and lower
Cold-wrinkled and higher
Cross section of the penis-3 cylindrical bodies- what’s on the dorsal/ventral side
Dorsal: corpus cavernosa (2)
Ventral: corpus spongiosum
2 dorsal corpus cavernosa
Main erectile bodies
Erection happens due to blood congestion
Branches from internal iliac artery
Parasympathetic NS releases NO in smooth muscles of artery
What is the crus
At the proximal end of corpus cavernosa
Anchor penis to pubic arch
Ventral corpus spongisum characteristics
Surrounds urethra
Erectile body
From bulb (proximal end) to glans (distal end)
Bulb characteristics
Proximal end of corpus spongisum
Surrounded by bulbospongiosus muscle for ejeculation
Testis position
Within scrotum
Testis exocrine function
Makes sperm into epididymus
Endocrine function of testis
Secretes testosterone into blood
Where does the tunica vaginalis come from
Parietal peritoneum, inner layer of abdominal wall
What is the tunica albuginea
Under vaginalis
Separates testis interiorly into lobules
What two epitheliums are in the seminiferous tubules?
Stratified epithelium: germ cells
Simple columnar epithelium: Sertoli cells
Seminiferous tubules exocrine function
Immobile sperm cells by testicular fluid Sertoli cells
What are interstitial cells
Leydig cells: secrete testosterone into blood
Blood never goes into seminiferous tubules bc of blood-testis barrier
Testis exocrine and endocrine function
Exocrine: sperms into seminiferous
Endocrine: testosterone into blood
Where is the epididymis
Between testis and ductus deferens
What is the epididymis function for sperm
Become motile
Provide nutrients
Expelled sperms into ductus deferens during ejaculation
Where is the ductus deferens
Between epididymis and ejaculatory duct
Joins seminal vesicles to form ejaculatory duct in prostrate
Passes through spermatic cord to pelvic cavity
Where does the spermatic cord come from
Abdominal wall
What’s in the spermatic cord
Arteries and veins, lymphatic vessels, nerve fibers and vas deferens
Internal and external ends of ejaculatory duct are where
Internal: formed by Seminal vesicle and vas deferens
External: enter urethra by two openings within prostrate
Ejaculatory duct function
Contribute to ejaculation
Where is the urethra and how many (male)
Within corpus spongiosum; one
Urethra function
Common pathway for both urinary system and male reproductive system both urine and semen can pass but at different time bc of internal urethral sphincter (smooth muscle)
What is the male duct system
Ducts carry sperm outside from testes Epididymus Ductus deferens Ejaculatory duct Urethra
Glands in the male reproductive system
Paired seminal glands (seminal vesicles)
Prostrate
Paired bulbourethral glands
Where is the paired seminal glands
Merge with ductus deferens
Posterior to bladder
Seminal glands function
Most composition of semen
Nourish sperm
Prolong the lifespan of spermatic by the alkaline secretion
Secretion during ejaculation
Where is the prostrate gland
Encircles urethra just inferior to bladder
Has opening into urethra
Prostrate gland function
Nourish sperm
Secretion during ejaculation
Where is the bulbourethral glands
Close to bulb of corpus spongiosum
Bulbourethral glands function
Lubricating glans of corpus spongiosum
Secretion during sexual arousal
Homologous to Bartholin’s glands in females
Urethra is anterior/posterior to vagina
Urethra is/is not part of the female reproductive system
Anterior; is not
What is the labia majora homologous to in the male
Scrotum
What is the labia minora homologous to in the male
Urethra of penis
Where is the ovaries
Within intraperitoneal cavity
Above broad ligament
What is the broad ligament
Folded parietal peritoneum
Separates intraperitoneal cavity from subperitoneal cavity
Anchors reproductive organs
Almost all organs of the reproductive system in both male and female are within what?
Subperitoneal cavity (below broad ligament) Has opening in female only
Exocrine function of ovaries
Secrete female gametes (oocyte) into uterine tube
Endocrine function of ovaries
Secretes sex hormone such as estrogen into blood
Describe the ovary surface epithelium
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Outer layer derived from peritoneum
Where is the tunica albuginea of ovary
Under ovary surface epithelium
Explain the uterine/Fallopian tubes
Have no direct connection with ovaries
Ovulated oocyte is cast into peritoneal cavity
Have ciliated fimbriae of infundibulum create currents to absorb the secondary ooctye
Receive ovulated oocyte
Usual site of fertilization
Not the site of implantation
Uterus
Site for implanting fertilized ovum (ova)
4 parts of the uterus
Fundus
Body
Isthmus
Cervix
Where is the fundus
Superior to the entrance of uterine tube
Where is the cervix
Vagina
Three layers of uterus
Endometrium
Myometrium
Perimetrium
Two layers of the endometrium
Stratum functionalis
Stratum basalis
Function of stratum functionalis
Changes in response to ovarian hormone cycles
Shed during menstruation
Simple columnar epithelium
Function of stratum basalis
Forms new functionalis after menstruation
Unresponsive to ovarian hormones
Where does the embryo and fetus implant?
Within endometrium only
What’s posterior and anterior to the vagina
Rectum posterior
Urethra anterior
What is the vagina made out of
Stratified squamous epithelium
What is the uterus made out of and what is the structure called where the vagina and uterus meet
Simple columnar epithelium
Squamocolumnar junction
Explain the Bartholin’s gland
Homologous to bulbo-urethral glands in male
Release mucus for lubrication
What is the vestibular bulb homologous to in the male
Bulbospingiosus muscle (bulb)
Primary sex organs and what they produce and secrete
Testes and ovaries
Produce gametes-sperm and ova
Secrete steroid sex hormones
Accessory reproductive organs
Ducts, glands
Similarities between mitosis and meiosis
Both are cell division that occur in humans
Both duplicate chromosome only once
Difference between mitosis and meiosis
Synapsis
Recombination of homologous chromosome
Reduction division
What is synapsis?
Pairing of replicated homologous chromosomes
After first division,
Mitosis: 2n, 1c
Meiosis: 1n, 2c
Different ways homologous chromosomes are recombined
Chromosomal crossover
Genetic variation
Mitosis vs. meiosis Number of divisions: Synapsis recombination: Daughter cell number: Identical to parents’ cell: Function:
One; two No; yes 2; 4 Yes (2n); no (1n) Growth and repair; reproduction
Spermatogenesis and oogenesis is mitosis/meiosis?
Meiosis
What are Sertoli cells and what do they do?
Simple columnar epithelium surrounding sperm cells Tight junction Blood-testis barrier Provide nutrients Secrete fluid to transport sperm cells Phagocytize faulty sperm cell
When does spermatogenesis begin?
Puberty
What is spermatogonium?
Stem cell most close to the wall of tube
First step of spermatogenesis-mitosis-type A calls and type B daughter cells
What do type A cells do?
Maintain germ cell line at basal lamina
What do type B cells do?
Move toward lumen and develop into primary spermatocytes
What genotype is the primary spermatocyte before division 1
2n, 2c
What genotype is the secondary spermatocyte after division 2?
1n, 2c
2 cells
What genotype is the spermatids after division 2?
1n, 2c
4 cells who are round and have cytoplasmic material
Describe sperm cells
Nearly no cytoplasm and organelles
Only mitochondria and flagellum
Describe the head of the sperm
Genetic region
Describe the midpiece of the sperm cell
Mitochondria for ATP to move tail
Describe the tail of the sperm
Flagellum
Immotile sperm
What actually goes into the egg during fertilization
Only head; no mitochondria
Describe primordial follicles
Smallest follicle Earliest follicle Highest number before birth Grow into primary follicles after birth Granulosa cells and primary oocyte
Describe primary follicles
Grow during infancy and childhood
Granulosa cells and primary oocyte
Describe secondary follicles
Liquid-filled vesicles
From puberty to menopause
Granulosa cells and primary oocyte
Describe a tertiary (vesicular or antral) follicle
Fully mature follicle
Vesicular follicle bulges from ovary surface every month
From puberty to menopause (ovulation, 1/month)
Granulosa cells and secondary oocyte
Describe ovulation
Ejection of secondary oocyte along with granulosa cells from vesicular follicle into uterine tube
Describe oogonium
Stem cell Mitosis before birth of female fetus Stops working at birth Generates primary oocytes within primordial follicles Genotype: 2n, 1c
Describe primary oocytes
Number already determined at birth for a female
Meiosis 1 starts but arrests during infancy and childhood
Within primordial, primary, or secondary follicle
Genotype: 2n, 2c
Describe the secondary oocyte + 1st polar body
From puberty to menopause
One primary oocyte finishes meiosis 1 per month
One big secondary oocyte and one small first polar body per month
Genotype: 1n, 2c
Secondary oocyte within tertiary follicle
Oocyte released into Fallopian tube for fertilization
Oocyte arrests at meiosis 2 before fertilization
Describe the ovum + 2nd polar body
Only when fertilization in fallopian give
Meiosis 2 finishes
One big ovum and one small 2nd polar body
Genotype: 1n, 1c
Female germ cells summary
Meiosis 1: primary (1)
Secondary (1) + 1 polar body
Meiosis 2: secondary (1)
(Fertilized) ovum (1) + 1 polar body
What is happening during menstruation
The secondary oocyte (1n, 2c) comes out with blood bc meiosis 2 can’t finish without sperm cells
Caused by hormones from pituitary
Describe granulosa cells
Surrounds oocyte
Forms blood-follicle barrier
Produce estrogen
Similarities between spermatogenesis and oogenesis
Both meiosis
Both have stem cells
Both mitosis first
Secondary: 1n, 2c
Spermatogenesis vs. oogenesis Number of gametes after meiosis Time needed Rate of production Cytoplasm in gametes Size of gametes Equal division Limited number of primary gametes Starts at
4;1 Months;years Millions/month; 1/month No;yes Smaller/larger Yes/no No; yes Puberty; fetus
Describe chromatin
Unwounds DNA
Cells are in this form for the most time
No mitosis and meiosis
Describe chromosome
Tightly packed DNA
Little time in this form
During mitosis and meiosis
Describe chromatid
One copy of a copied chromosome which is still joined to another copy by a single centrosome
2n, 2c
