BI-242 Final Flashcards
1
Q
What is true about the epicardium?
A
It is the visceral pericardium
2
Q
Name the heart valves in the order in which an erythrocytes would pass through then after returning to the heart from the left arm
A
Tricuspid valve, pulmonary semilunar valve, bicuspid (mitral) valve, aortic semilunar valve
3
Q
Damage to cells of the AV bundle would prevent the cardiac impulses from reaching what?
A
Ventricles
4
Q
List the structures in order that action potential passes
A
SA node, AV node, atrioventricular bundle, bundle branches, Purkinje fibers
5
Q
In an ECG, the P wave represents what?
A
Depolarization of the atria
6
Q
During the period of ejection in the cardiac cycle, the atrioventricular valves are __________ and the semilunar valves are__________.
A
Closed, open
7
Q
Cardiac output is defined as this
A
Heart rate times stroke volume
8
Q
In a person who has a damaged left ventricle due to a heart attack, they would experience what
A
Left ventricle pumps less blood than the right
Blood accumulates in the pulmonary vessels
9
Q
What structures returns blood to the right atrium
A
Coronary sinus
Inferior and superior vena cava
10
Q
All cardiac veins empty into the _______, which then empties into the ________.
A
Coronary sinus; right atrium
11
Q
This type of capillary has no gaps between endothelial calls and is less permeable to large molecules and exists in muscle and nervous tissue
A
Continuous capillaries
12
Q
List the blood vessels in the order a red blood cell passes through them as it leaves the heart, travels to a tissue , and returns to the heart
A
Elastic artery, muscular artery, arteriole, capillary, venule, vein
13
Q
Blood going to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries contains a high concentration of _________ and a low concentration of _________.
A
Carbon dioxide; oxygen
14
Q
The left and right internal carotid arteries and the left and right vertebral arteries all contribute to this
A
Circle of Willis (cerebral arterial circle)
15
Q
Blood from the arms, shoulders, and head passes through this vessel in order to return blood to the heart
A
Superior vena cava
16
Q
The hepatic portal vein is formed by the junction of these vessels
A
Superior mesenteric and splenic veins
17
Q
If a person has a systolic pressure of 100mm Hg and a diastolic pressure of 70mm Hg, what is the pulse pressure?
A
30mm Hg
18
Q
Venous return would be increased by this
A
Increased skeletal muscle activity
19
Q
The colloid osmotic pressure of the blood is caused by this
A
The presence of proteins in the plasma
20
Q
Give the vessels in order going from small intestine to the inferior vena cava
A
Superior mesenteric vein, hepatic portal vein, hepatic vein
21
Q
During exercise, the blood flow through skeletal muscle may increase up to 20-fold. The cardiac output does not increase that much because of what
A
Vasoconstriction in the viscera, temporary vasoconstriction of the skin, vasodilation of skeletal muscle blood vessels
22
Q
List the structures in the order that food encounters then as it passes between small intestine and the rectum
A
Ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon
23
Q
What is the major duodenal papilla
A
The opening of the hepatopancreatic ampulla in the duodenum
24
Q
The layer of the digestive tract that is in direct contact with the food that is consumed
A
Mucosa
25
This kind of epithelium lines the mouth, oropharynx, esophagus and anal canal
Stratified squamous
26
What is the function of bile
Contains breakdown products from hemoglobin
| Emulsifies fat
27
Saliva contains the digestive enzyme_______, which breaks down starch into_______.
Amylase; maltose
28
These cells in the gastric glands produce pepsinogen
Chief cells
29
The brain relies almost entirely on this for energy production
Glucose
30
About 99% of the body’s energy storage is in the form of this
Lipids
31
This is the energy currency of the cell
ATP
32
Vegetarians usually have to be more careful about his or her diet than a person who includes meat in the diet because of this
Plants are not complete protein foods, a variety of plants must be consumed to include all essential amino acids,
Plants contain less protein per unit weight than meat
33
What organ of the digestive system does not make lipase
Small intestine
34
Humans can survive most easily without what organ?
Gallbladder
35
Which of the following can NOT be injected into the blood directly for giving patients nutrients
Maltose
36
What composes the urinary system
Two kidneys, two ureters, one bladder, one urethra
37
How do you find the volume of an artery in the urinary system
Volume of vein+volume of ureter
38
Where are the kidneys located
12th rib; between dorsal body wall and the parietal peritoneum in a retroperitoneal position; right kidney is lower than left one
39
Functions of kidney
Excreting water, wastes and foreign substances
| Secreting hormones: erythropoietin and renin
40
What does erythropoietin do?
Increases red blood cell production
41
What does renin do?
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
| Increases blood pressure
42
What is the renal cortex
Outer portion of kidney; lighter color separated from medulla by arcuate arteries and veins
43
What is the renal medulla
Deep to cortex; darker in color
44
What is the renal column
Medullary extension of the renal cortex in between the renal pyramids; have branches of renal arteries and veins
45
What are the renal pyramids
Come-shaped; stripped appearance with papilla pointing to innermost region of kidney; convergence of collecting duct
46
What is the renal papilla
The point where the renal pyramids empty urine into the minor calyx; apex of the renal pyramids; convergence point of collecting duct
47
What is the minor calyx
Surrounds papillae of renal pyramids
48
What is the major calyx
Converged by 3 minor calyces
49
What is the renal pelvis
Converged by 3 major calyces; only one in one kidney; funnel-like dilated proximal part of the ureter
50
What is the renal ureter
Connects kidneys with urinary bladder
51
What is the nephron
Structural and functional unit of kidney responsible for filtering blood and forming urine; renal corpuscle located within cortex
52
What makes up the renal corpuscle and what does it do
Glomerulus and glomerular capsule; responsible for glomerular filtration and generating primary urine
53
What is the glomerulus
Fenestrated capillaries with oxygenated blood; connects with afferent and efferent arteries; contacts with DCT
54
What is the glomerular capsule
Aka Bowman’s capsule
| Cup-like sac enclose glomerulus
55
What’s the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)?
Between Bowman’s capsule and the loop of Henle; responsible for tubular reabsorption
56
What is the Nephron loop
Between PCT and DCT; contains Loop of Henle; has four limbs (thick descending, thin descending, thin ascending, thick ascending); descending limbs runs into medulla; ascending limbs return back to cortex; concentrate urine
57
What is the distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
Between nephron loop and CD; connects to one collecting duct; regulates ions and water in urine; influenced by aldosterone; passes near to the original corpuscle to form juxtaglomerular apparatus
58
What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus
Between renal corpuscle and the returning DCT of the same nephron; makes renin
59
What is the collecting duct (CD)
Deep in renal pyramids; converges at medullary papilla; generate final urine; release it into minor calyx; final component of the kidney to influence the body’s electrolyte and fluid balance
60
Nephron function
Controls levels of electrolytes and metabolites; regulates blood volume and blood pressure
61
```
Describe the difference between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons
Corpuscle location (cortex)
Loop location (medulla)
Loop length (medulla)
Number
Capillaries
Concentrated urine
```
```
Cortical:
Farther away
Shallow short
More
Pertubular
No
Juxtamedullary:
Closer to medulla
Deep
Long
Less
Vasa recta
Yes
```
62
Kidney blood supply
Volume of artery=volume of vein + volume of ureter
| Volume of artery and volume of vein are NOT equal
63
Renal arteries
```
Renal artery
Interlobular artery
Arcuate artery
Radiate artery
Afferent artery
Glomerulus
Efferent arteriole
```
64
What does the arcuate artery do?
Separates cortex from medulla
65
What does the radiate artery do?
Lead to afferent arteriole
66
What two arterioles connect the glomerulus? And only supply oxygenated blood
Afferent and efferent arteriole
67
What type of capillary is the glomerulus?
Not typical; fenestrated capillary only responsible for filtration, no exchange
68
What type of capillaries are in the kidney
Typical; leads to radiate vein; peritubular and vasa recta
Efferent arteriole comes away from glomerulus and leads to peritubular capillary or vasa recta; connect with two capillaries
69
Definition of glomerular filtration
The plasma is filtered through glomerular filtration membrane
70
Layers glomerular filtration membrane
1. Endothelium of fenestrated capillaries
2. Basement membrane
3. Podocytes
71
What does the endothelium of fenestrated capillaries
Filter through fenestrated pores
| Prevent filtration of blood cells
72
What does the basement membrane do
Negatively charged
| Preventing filtration of proteins
73
What podocytes do
Filter through slits between pedicles
| Preventing filtration of proteins
74
What the glomerular filtration membrane filters
Blood cells; proteins
Keep in blood, not in urine
Nearly no difference between plasma and glomerular filtrate
75
What glomerular filtrate is made of
Primary urine, which has glucose, AA and other ions
76
What is the filtration force
Hydrostatic pressure
| Osmotic pressure
77
What is hydrostatic pressure caused by
Blood pressure
78
Explain hydrostatic pressure in glomerulus
Arteriole blood pressure; tends to force fluids out
79
Explain Hydrostatic pressure in capsule
Tends to force fluids back
80
What is osmotic pressure caused by
Caused by protein
81
Explain osmotic pressure in glomerulus
Caused by plasma proteins
| Tends to force fluids back
82
Explain osmotic pressure in capsule
0 mm Hg due to few protein content
83
Filtration force formula
```
Hydrostatic pressure in glomerulus = 60
Hydrostatic pressure in capsule = -18
Osmotic pressure glomerulus = -32
Osmotic pressure in capsule = 0
Net filtration pressure (NFP) = 10 mm Hg
```
84
What percentage of primary urine will be reabsorbed
99%
85
What does the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) do?
Complete reabsorption of glucose and AA into pertubular capillaries; water and NaCl
86
What does the distal convoluted tubule
Increases water reabsorption by aldosterone
87
What does the collecting duct do
Increases water reabsorption by antidiuretic hormone (ADH);
Final component of the kidney to influence the body’s electrolyte and fluid balance;
Primary urine become final urine
88
What is tubular secretion
From pertubular capillaries to renal tubular lumen; potassium (K)
89
What is the bladder made of
Transitional epithelium
90
What is the internal/external urethral sphincter
Internal: smooth muscle
External: skeletal muscle
91
```
Difference between male and female bladder
Bladder size
Urethra lengthen
Germ cells
Prostrate gland
```
```
Male:
Larger
Longer
Yes
Yes
Female:
Smaller
Shorter
No
No
Both urine and semen can pass but at different time
```
92
External/internal reproductive organs
```
External
Clitoris=Penis
Labia majora=scrotum
ovary=testis
Internal
Labia minora=spongy urethra
```
93
Scrotum function
Contains paired testes
| Hangs outside abdominopelvic cavity
94
Where does the scrotum come from
Abdominal wall
| Skin + fascia
95
Characteristics of scrotum
Lower than core body temperature, which is necessary for sperm production
Hot-flaccid and lower
Cold-wrinkled and higher
96
Cross section of the penis-3 cylindrical bodies- what’s on the dorsal/ventral side
Dorsal: corpus cavernosa (2)
Ventral: corpus spongiosum
97
2 dorsal corpus cavernosa
Main erectile bodies
Erection happens due to blood congestion
Branches from internal iliac artery
Parasympathetic NS releases NO in smooth muscles of artery
98
What is the crus
At the proximal end of corpus cavernosa
| Anchor penis to pubic arch
99
Ventral corpus spongisum characteristics
Surrounds urethra
Erectile body
From bulb (proximal end) to glans (distal end)
100
Bulb characteristics
Proximal end of corpus spongisum
| Surrounded by bulbospongiosus muscle for ejeculation
101
Testis position
Within scrotum
102
Testis exocrine function
Makes sperm into epididymus
103
Endocrine function of testis
Secretes testosterone into blood
104
Where does the tunica vaginalis come from
Parietal peritoneum, inner layer of abdominal wall
105
What is the tunica albuginea
Under vaginalis
| Separates testis interiorly into lobules
106
What two epitheliums are in the seminiferous tubules?
Stratified epithelium: germ cells
| Simple columnar epithelium: Sertoli cells
107
Seminiferous tubules exocrine function
Immobile sperm cells by testicular fluid Sertoli cells
108
What are interstitial cells
Leydig cells: secrete testosterone into blood
| Blood never goes into seminiferous tubules bc of blood-testis barrier
109
Testis exocrine and endocrine function
Exocrine: sperms into seminiferous
Endocrine: testosterone into blood
110
Where is the epididymis
Between testis and ductus deferens
111
What is the epididymis function for sperm
Become motile
Provide nutrients
Expelled sperms into ductus deferens during ejaculation
112
Where is the ductus deferens
Between epididymis and ejaculatory duct
Joins seminal vesicles to form ejaculatory duct in prostrate
Passes through spermatic cord to pelvic cavity
113
Where does the spermatic cord come from
Abdominal wall
114
What’s in the spermatic cord
Arteries and veins, lymphatic vessels, nerve fibers and vas deferens
115
Internal and external ends of ejaculatory duct are where
Internal: formed by Seminal vesicle and vas deferens
External: enter urethra by two openings within prostrate
116
Ejaculatory duct function
Contribute to ejaculation
117
Where is the urethra and how many (male)
Within corpus spongiosum; one
118
Urethra function
Common pathway for both urinary system and male reproductive system both urine and semen can pass but at different time bc of internal urethral sphincter (smooth muscle)
119
What is the male duct system
```
Ducts carry sperm outside from testes
Epididymus
Ductus deferens
Ejaculatory duct
Urethra
```
120
Glands in the male reproductive system
Paired seminal glands (seminal vesicles)
Prostrate
Paired bulbourethral glands
121
Where is the paired seminal glands
Merge with ductus deferens
| Posterior to bladder
122
Seminal glands function
Most composition of semen
Nourish sperm
Prolong the lifespan of spermatic by the alkaline secretion
Secretion during ejaculation
123
Where is the prostrate gland
Encircles urethra just inferior to bladder
| Has opening into urethra
124
Prostrate gland function
Nourish sperm
| Secretion during ejaculation
125
Where is the bulbourethral glands
Close to bulb of corpus spongiosum
126
Bulbourethral glands function
Lubricating glans of corpus spongiosum
Secretion during sexual arousal
Homologous to Bartholin’s glands in females
127
Urethra is anterior/posterior to vagina
| Urethra is/is not part of the female reproductive system
Anterior; is not
128
What is the labia majora homologous to in the male
Scrotum
129
What is the labia minora homologous to in the male
Urethra of penis
130
Where is the ovaries
Within intraperitoneal cavity
| Above broad ligament
131
What is the broad ligament
Folded parietal peritoneum
Separates intraperitoneal cavity from subperitoneal cavity
Anchors reproductive organs
132
Almost all organs of the reproductive system in both male and female are within what?
```
Subperitoneal cavity (below broad ligament)
Has opening in female only
```
133
Exocrine function of ovaries
Secrete female gametes (oocyte) into uterine tube
134
Endocrine function of ovaries
Secretes sex hormone such as estrogen into blood
135
Describe the ovary surface epithelium
Simple cuboidal epithelium
| Outer layer derived from peritoneum
136
Where is the tunica albuginea of ovary
Under ovary surface epithelium
137
Explain the uterine/Fallopian tubes
Have no direct connection with ovaries
Ovulated oocyte is cast into peritoneal cavity
Have ciliated fimbriae of infundibulum create currents to absorb the secondary ooctye
Receive ovulated oocyte
Usual site of fertilization
Not the site of implantation
138
Uterus
Site for implanting fertilized ovum (ova)
139
4 parts of the uterus
Fundus
Body
Isthmus
Cervix
140
Where is the fundus
Superior to the entrance of uterine tube
141
Where is the cervix
Vagina
142
Three layers of uterus
Endometrium
Myometrium
Perimetrium
143
Two layers of the endometrium
Stratum functionalis
| Stratum basalis
144
Function of stratum functionalis
Changes in response to ovarian hormone cycles
Shed during menstruation
Simple columnar epithelium
145
Function of stratum basalis
Forms new functionalis after menstruation
| Unresponsive to ovarian hormones
146
Where does the embryo and fetus implant?
Within endometrium only
147
What’s posterior and anterior to the vagina
Rectum posterior
| Urethra anterior
148
What is the vagina made out of
Stratified squamous epithelium
149
What is the uterus made out of and what is the structure called where the vagina and uterus meet
Simple columnar epithelium
| Squamocolumnar junction
150
Explain the Bartholin’s gland
Homologous to bulbo-urethral glands in male
| Release mucus for lubrication
151
What is the vestibular bulb homologous to in the male
Bulbospingiosus muscle (bulb)
152
Primary sex organs and what they produce and secrete
Testes and ovaries
Produce gametes-sperm and ova
Secrete steroid sex hormones
153
Accessory reproductive organs
Ducts, glands
154
Similarities between mitosis and meiosis
Both are cell division that occur in humans
| Both duplicate chromosome only once
155
Difference between mitosis and meiosis
Synapsis
Recombination of homologous chromosome
Reduction division
156
What is synapsis?
Pairing of replicated homologous chromosomes
After first division,
Mitosis: 2n, 1c
Meiosis: 1n, 2c
157
Different ways homologous chromosomes are recombined
Chromosomal crossover
| Genetic variation
158
```
Mitosis vs. meiosis
Number of divisions:
Synapsis recombination:
Daughter cell number:
Identical to parents’ cell:
Function:
```
```
One; two
No; yes
2; 4
Yes (2n); no (1n)
Growth and repair; reproduction
```
159
Spermatogenesis and oogenesis is mitosis/meiosis?
Meiosis
160
What are Sertoli cells and what do they do?
```
Simple columnar epithelium surrounding sperm cells
Tight junction
Blood-testis barrier
Provide nutrients
Secrete fluid to transport sperm cells
Phagocytize faulty sperm cell
```
161
When does spermatogenesis begin?
Puberty
162
What is spermatogonium?
Stem cell most close to the wall of tube
| First step of spermatogenesis-mitosis-type A calls and type B daughter cells
163
What do type A cells do?
Maintain germ cell line at basal lamina
164
What do type B cells do?
Move toward lumen and develop into primary spermatocytes
165
What genotype is the primary spermatocyte before division 1
2n, 2c
166
What genotype is the secondary spermatocyte after division 2?
1n, 2c
| 2 cells
167
What genotype is the spermatids after division 2?
1n, 2c
| 4 cells who are round and have cytoplasmic material
168
Describe sperm cells
Nearly no cytoplasm and organelles
| Only mitochondria and flagellum
169
Describe the head of the sperm
Genetic region
170
Describe the midpiece of the sperm cell
Mitochondria for ATP to move tail
171
Describe the tail of the sperm
Flagellum
| Immotile sperm
172
What actually goes into the egg during fertilization
Only head; no mitochondria
173
Describe primordial follicles
```
Smallest follicle
Earliest follicle
Highest number before birth
Grow into primary follicles after birth
Granulosa cells and primary oocyte
```
174
Describe primary follicles
Grow during infancy and childhood
| Granulosa cells and primary oocyte
175
Describe secondary follicles
Liquid-filled vesicles
From puberty to menopause
Granulosa cells and primary oocyte
176
Describe a tertiary (vesicular or antral) follicle
Fully mature follicle
Vesicular follicle bulges from ovary surface every month
From puberty to menopause (ovulation, 1/month)
Granulosa cells and secondary oocyte
177
Describe ovulation
Ejection of secondary oocyte along with granulosa cells from vesicular follicle into uterine tube
178
Describe oogonium
```
Stem cell
Mitosis before birth of female fetus
Stops working at birth
Generates primary oocytes within primordial follicles
Genotype: 2n, 1c
```
179
Describe primary oocytes
Number already determined at birth for a female
Meiosis 1 starts but arrests during infancy and childhood
Within primordial, primary, or secondary follicle
Genotype: 2n, 2c
180
Describe the secondary oocyte + 1st polar body
From puberty to menopause
One primary oocyte finishes meiosis 1 per month
One big secondary oocyte and one small first polar body per month
Genotype: 1n, 2c
Secondary oocyte within tertiary follicle
Oocyte released into Fallopian tube for fertilization
Oocyte arrests at meiosis 2 before fertilization
181
Describe the ovum + 2nd polar body
Only when fertilization in fallopian give
Meiosis 2 finishes
One big ovum and one small 2nd polar body
Genotype: 1n, 1c
182
Female germ cells summary
Meiosis 1: primary (1)
Secondary (1) + 1 polar body
Meiosis 2: secondary (1)
(Fertilized) ovum (1) + 1 polar body
183
What is happening during menstruation
The secondary oocyte (1n, 2c) comes out with blood bc meiosis 2 can’t finish without sperm cells
Caused by hormones from pituitary
184
Describe granulosa cells
Surrounds oocyte
Forms blood-follicle barrier
Produce estrogen
185
Similarities between spermatogenesis and oogenesis
Both meiosis
Both have stem cells
Both mitosis first
Secondary: 1n, 2c
186
```
Spermatogenesis vs. oogenesis
Number of gametes after meiosis
Time needed
Rate of production
Cytoplasm in gametes
Size of gametes
Equal division
Limited number of primary gametes
Starts at
```
```
4;1
Months;years
Millions/month; 1/month
No;yes
Smaller/larger
Yes/no
No; yes
Puberty; fetus
```
187
Describe chromatin
Unwounds DNA
Cells are in this form for the most time
No mitosis and meiosis
188
Describe chromosome
Tightly packed DNA
Little time in this form
During mitosis and meiosis
189
Describe chromatid
One copy of a copied chromosome which is still joined to another copy by a single centrosome
2n, 2c
