Beliefs 4 - Main Theories

Question 1

What does Durkheim argue religion is based off?

Answer 1

Sacred (place e.g Bethlehem, book e.g bible, person e.g Jesus, event e.g Easter, etc.)
Profane (non-sacred)

Question 2

What does Durkheim believe the primary function of religion was and why?

Answer 2

Celebrating society
He says sacred symbolises society and profane symbolises the individual
Therefore society is more powerful and significant than the individual
Celebrations reaffirm group solidarity

Question 3

Durkheims example of his theory?

Answer 3

Totemism (Australian aborigines)
Aboriginal clans each had a different ‘guardian spirit’ (churingas) represented as a totem, which they worship
As they represents the society (clan), Durkheim believes their worship is worshipping society

Question 4

What does Durkheim say are the functions of religion?

Answer 4

Stability and cohesion (consensus beliefs)
Social identity (a group to be in)
Collective conscience (religion reinforces, especially in worship)
Socialisation and social control (value system of the society, can become sacred (e.g Ten Commandments))
Meaning and purpose (strength to continue during instability)

Question 5

Evaluation of functionalists view on religion?

Answer 5

Religion has caused wars (not social solidarity and peace)
Worsley (1956) said Durkheim had misunderstood aspects of the religion particularly difference between sacred and profane, and roles of totems
Durkheim’s is a circular argument that can’t be measured so therefore dis/proven
Outdated theories (secularisation)
Americanism is stretching what ‘religion’ is too far (does religion need a supernatural element?)
Malinowski’s study was a participant observation done over four years, so positivists believe it was unreliable and ungeneralisable to other tribes
Ignores the role religion can play in social change

Question 6

Evaluation of Durkheim’s totemism research?

Answer 6

It is his own research so he could be biased

Question 7

Other functionalist theories on religion in society?

Answer 7

Bellah (1967) same functions as totemism in modern states such as Americanism (flag is a religious symbol, god bless america doesn’t need the same god, dying for country, etc.)
Parsons, gives value consensus (10 commandments) and answers big questions so life feels less meaningless (personal needs)
Malinowski (1954) psychological function (Trobriand islanders only prayed when going into dangerous waters), stops these emotions causing disorder in a society

Question 8

Whats Karl Marx’s belief on religion?

Answer 8

Religion gives people purpose which they don’t have in life because they have to work
It can dull the pain of oppression
It’s also an ideological state apparatus (religion justifies bourgeoises place: kings chosen by God)
God isn’t real, man created him

Question 9

What justifies Marx’s point?

Answer 9

Caste system in India justified by Hinduism
Pentecostalism spreading among Brazilian shanty towns; they are told they are poor because of sins
Budd, early industrial revolution England employers supported religion to subjugate masses
Slave owners converted slaves to Christianity ‘seen as a controlling infuence’
Hook (1990) churches wealth should fight poverty
Bruce (1988) conservative USA Protestants are very pro-right wing (no welfare, etc.)
Thompson, Methodism explained away misfortunes (storms, etc.) for fisherman in Cornwall
Borock, religion part of societies ideological sphere (King head of state and church)
Lacquer, Sunday school had links between classes and taught ‘middle class’ values
Halevy (1927) Methodism stopped british revolution in 19th century

Question 10

Criticisms of Marxist religions?

Answer 10

Turner, Marxist beliefs on religion not relevant today (>10% attend church)
Socialist Israeli Kibbutzim see no contradiction in socialism and religion (Fidel Castro acknowledged appeal of religion in Cuba after communism)
Marx may have overstated how religion is a tool of control (its really the wealth, contacts and networks)
Marxism is another ‘functional alternative’ to religion?
Weber, religion could be a system for change (Martin Luther King Jr. was baptist, American clergy anti-Vietnam war, Kenya pro-democracy 1997 include religious ministers
Marxists too economically deterministic, functionalism see it for comfort, etc. and some (e.g Krishna Consciousness) reject materialism
Middle class go to church too (Marxist ideology say they have no reason to)
Lacquer, Sunday schools ‘middle class values’ weren’t necessarily middle class

Question 11

How do feminists believe religion is sexist?

Answer 11

All gods are male (except Hindu e.g. Lakshmi) and teachers and prophets are usually male
Eve made after Adam (less important) and ‘led Adam to temptation’
Buddhism, Christianity and Islam (‘Men are in charge of women’) women all have limited and stereotyped roles
Judaism ‘Blessed art thou O Lord our God that I was not born a woman’
Majority of religious professionals are male (Catholic, Orthodox Greek, Russian and Judaism women can’t be)
Women in the congregation sit further away (Orthodox Judaism) and can’t see or hear properly (Swale, 2000)

Question 12

Evidence of religion being sexist?

Answer 12

Anderson and Gordon (1979) witch-hunting had misogynous ideological basis (low status of women)
Power (1975) ‘view of women as an instrument of the devil’ started in the church

Question 13

Othe evidence of feminists view of religion?

Answer 13

Marxist approach supports it (women more likely to be poor, so more likely to join cults, sects (Bruce, 1995), religion (2:1 to men) and New Age
De Beauvoir (1953) agrees with Marxists, but also says religion offers them compensation by having equality in heaven
El Saadawi (1980) blames the patriarchal domination of religion that came with monotheism and men wrote scriptures e.g Jewish religion used Abraham to say the patriarchal power was most important
Cohen and Kennedy (2000) restoring fundamentalism is linked to reinstating male control (America abortion, Hindu fundamentalism less freedom for women, Iran, Israel, Afghanistan, etc.)

Question 14

Evaluation to feminist argument to religion and organisation of it?

Answer 14

Goddesses (Greek and Roman e.g Athena, Hinduism, Wicca worship a moon and woodlands goddess)
Women have had leadership roles in religion (e.g Ellen Day started the Seventh Day Adventist Church, leaders in Pentecostalism (Martin, 2003)
Challenges to patriarchal structure e.g Judaism women can be Rabbi
Gender-neutral language in hymns
To obey is cut out of weddings
Sects and denominations attract more women (under-privilege) and also caring, etc. seen as feminine

Question 15

Evaluation of feminists view of freedom in religion?

Answer 15

Oppressed Muslim woman is based upon Western notions of freedom
Amos and Parmar (1981) numerous motivations for veiling: sign of religious faith; statement about moral values
Watson (1994) it may prevent unwanted attention from men, so not fitting sexist stereotypes
Veiling can be means of ethnic and gender assertiveness
Ahmed (1992) veil means a Muslim woman can be involved in modern society and be modest

Question 16

Evaluation of feminists view of socialisation, moral codes and control?

Answer 16

Gross (1994) post-patriarchal Buddhism in the west with no gender roles
Badawi (1994) some elements if Islam positive for women e.g. keep their own family name when marrying (most converts to Islam are female)
Davidman (1991) women convert to Orthodox Judaism because they want to be a traditional mother and wife and that society celebrates that and says men should be involved in family life
American research: coalition between feminists and religion, such as banning pornography

Question 17

Evaluation of feminists view of religion (other)?

Answer 17

Women acknowledge it is the man made aspects of religion as oppressive, not religion itself
Quakerism (part of Christian religions) have never been oppressive to women
Kaur-Singh (1994) Sikh gurus pleaded for emancipation of Indian women
Holm and Bowker (1994) religious organisations only for women are forerunners of the modern woman’s movement as separate from men
Catholic nuns can be oppressive or liberating and though some orders are traditional, others aren’t

Question 18

Postmodernists view on religion?

Answer 18

Lyotard (1984) Religion is a meta-narrative (no monopoly on the truth) which people don’t trust anymore (globalisation, so different beliefs)
Hervieu-Leger (2000) religions reluctance to change has led to its demise
New Age movements have replaced religion due to societal changes (helped by globalisation)
Lyon (2000) religious marketplace

Question 19

Post-modernists religious views criticisms?

Answer 19

Religion still exists
Bruce (2002) most people still go to conventional doctors for ailments not astrology or aura healing, etc. (science, though doubted, is still primary religion) AND advertising and group identities may effect peoples individuality through consumerism
Abdullahi An-Na’im (2003) Islamic fundamentalism has existed for thousands of years

Question 20

How has post-modernism helped support religion

Answer 20

Holden (2002) Post-modernism has led to fundamentalism as it is hopeful and gives direction
Castells (1996) fundamentalism is a way to have ‘resistance identities’ against globalisation
Herbert (2001) conservative Islam is accepting of modern science and technology
Starrett (1998) religions are accepting of modern medical technologies (IVF, plastic surgery, birth control) as long as they’re applied within limits
Castells (1996) religions use social media to mobilise ides, money and social links

Question 21

Neo-Marxist views on religion?

Answer 21

Bloch (1959) religion has a dual character, both hopeful and very conservative
Gramsci (1971) church maintained the cultural hegemony (dominant set of beliefs) that benefited bourgeoisie, individual members could aspire to change things for the better
Maduro (1982) when protests are banned, the church could be the only safe outlet for frustration, and religious leaders, whose death could cause a major uprising, are usually safe. But religious leaders may have to go against the religious message and with their own conscience (e.g Nicaragua dictator was overthrown by people inspired by religion, but priests were excommunicated from Catholic Church)

Question 22

Criticism of Neo-Marxist ideology?

Answer 22

Lehmann (2002) Pentecostalism challenges followers to work harder out of poverty and promote social stability, therefore reinforcing the capitalist system

Question 23

Max Weber’s (functionalist) view on religion?

Answer 23

Could justify inequality or bring about social change (theodicies of fortune and misfortune, backed up by Christiano and Swatos, 2008)
There are also charismatic leaders (e.g Martin Luther King Jr.) who can bring about social change, traditional leaders, who support cultural norms, and Legal-rational leaders, who have legal systems support
Capitalism as we know it today (Working hard as the only way to honour God) was started by Calvinism who also stated God had already decided who goes to heaven and no one could predict it (followers become nervous in case they were part of ‘the elect’ and see wealth a a sign of his favour)

Question 24

Criticism of Weber’s beliefs?

Answer 24

Kautsky (1927) Marxist, capitalism existed before Calvinism, it only justify inequality and the ruling class