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BECOMING A RESEARCHER Flashcards

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1
Q

Define research integrity

A

conducting research in ways allowing others to trust/ have confidence in methods and final result

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2
Q

when researching what 2 things do u have to get a balance between

A

ethics and integrity

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3
Q

Where can ethical issues arrive

A 
research questions
research designs
number of participants
researcher experience
risk to participants
recruitment
respecting confidentiality
publication of results
informed consent
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4
Q

What does research have to pass in order to be published

A 
Do research
HaSS (human and social science)
STEM (science, tech, engineering, maths)
Research integrity comittee
Research comittee
Council
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5
Q

What are the 4 values in research

A

honesty
accuracy
efficiency
objectivity

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6
Q

define honesty

A

convey info truthfully

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7
Q

define accuracy

A

report findings precisely, take care to avoid errors

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8
Q

define efficiency

A

use resources wisely, avoid waste

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9
Q

define objectivity

A

let facts speak for themselves, avoiding bias

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10
Q

What is the scientific process

A 
Make observations
Think of interesting questions
Formula/ hypothesis
Develop testable predictions
Gather data to test predictions
Refine/ alter/ reject hypothesis
Develop general theory
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11
Q

Hierachy of evidence highest to lowest

A 
Randomised control trials
Cohort studies
Case control studies
Cross sectional studies/ surveys
Case reports, case studies
Mechanistic studies
Editorials/ expert opinion
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12
Q

Which one in hierarchy of evidence has highest quality of evidence

A

Randomised control trials

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13
Q

Which one in hierarchy of evidence has lowest quality of evidence

A

Editorials/ expert opinion

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14
Q

Which one in hierarchy of evidence has highest risk of bias

A

editorials/ expert opinion

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15
Q

Which one in hierarchy of evidence has lowest risk of bias

A

randomised control trials

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16
Q

What is the format of a peer reviewed research paper

A 
Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
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17
Q

What is an abstract

A

Structured with strict word limit

200-300

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18
Q

What is included in an introduction

A

why was it done?

what’s it adressing?

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19
Q

What is included in method

A

how was study conducted

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20
Q

what is included in results

A

what was found

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21
Q

What is included in discussion

A

Includes comparison of study conducted to existing studies/ literature
Strengths/ limitations
Implications for further research

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22
Q

why are research designs important

A

provide a frame work of methods and techniques, therefore conduct the study in a logical manor

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23
Q

What is descriptive research

A

what’s going on

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24
Q

What is explanatory/ mechanistic research

A

why is it going on

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25
Q

What are observational studies

A

No intervention made

Provides info on occasions/ relationships between exposure and event

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26
Q

What are experimental studies

A

Involves an intervention

Allows determination for cause and effect

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27
Q

What is a cross sectional design

A

Asseses phenomenon at ONE point in time
Measures sample ONCE
Provides a snapshot at a given point in time
Examines trends at societal level

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28
Q

What is a longitudinal design

A

Asseses phenomenon at several points in time
Measures same sample over time
Provides info on change in same people over time

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29
Q

What is a retrospective cohort design

A

Backward looking
Examine data that already exists
Tries to identify risk factors for particular conditions

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30
Q

What is a prospective cohort design

A

Forward looking

Watches for outcomes

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31
Q

What is a case control design

A

Usually retrospective
Outcome measures before exposure
People WITH OUTCOME are CASES
People WITHOUT are CONTROLS

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32
Q

What is a randomised control design

A

Forward looking/ prospective
Includes an intervention/ treatment
Participants randomised into a control group or an intervention group
Follow groups over time to determine any difference in outcomes

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33
Q

What is a quasi-experimental design

A

An intervention study that DOES NOT randomise participants
DOES NOT have control group
Therefore without control group you can’t say with confidence that the intervention is what caused the results

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34
Q

What are feasibility studies

A

Research done before a main study to determine whether the methods are feasible and acceptable

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35
Q

What are pilot studies

A

A small scale study conducted prior to a large scale experiment to test and refine procedures

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36
Q

What are anthropometry questionnaires

A

QUANTITATIVE measurements

important as representative diagnostic figures for obesity

Height, weight, BMI, body circumference (was it, hip & limbs), skin fold thickness

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37
Q

What are demographic questionnaires

A

Any questions that aim to better understand the characteristics of am individual and how fit they are within a population

eg- age, ethnicity, gender, occupation, income, education

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38
Q

What does PAR-Q stand for and what is it used for

A

Physical activity readiness questionnaire

A self screening tool used to assess safety to undertake exercise

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39
Q

What do you measure height with

A

Portable stadiometer

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40
Q

How do you measure height

A 
Place portable stadiometer on floor
Back against wall
Remove shoes
Heels against vertical bit
Move bar to crown of head
Measure height x3
Get off in-between measurements 
Take results that are concordant (within 0.2cm)
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41
Q

How do you measure body weight

A 
Portable scales
Remove shoes
Turn scale on, press tear
Make sure its at 0
Step on 
Wait for measurement to stabilise
Take 3 measurements 
Have to be concordant (within 0.1kg)
Take average
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42
Q

How to measure waist and hip circumference

A

Use flexible tape measure
Put it 1cm above belly button
Do against bare skin
Mark dot 1cm above belly button so it stays consistent
Make sure tape is flat
Turn foot out to side - where femur rotates that’s where to measure around

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43
Q

How to do the handgrip strength test

A

Use hand grip dynamometer
Wrap fingers around in grooves
Arm at 90 degrees
Squeeze to get the reading

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44
Q

What is a study aim

A

A statement that describes the purpose of the study

45
Q

What is a research question

A

A specific question that outlines the aim of the research study

46
Q

What is a research hypothesis

A

A specific clear and testable statement about the possible outcome of the research study
Null/ directional

47
Q

Give an example of a large scale RCT

A

ProACT65+

48
Q

What are the 3 parts in the SPPB

A

Balance
Gait speed test
Stand from chair

49
Q

Whats the highest score you can achieve in the SPPB

A

12

50
Q

What does the SPPB asses

A

Asseses patients ability for physical function and asses future risks for falls

51
Q

what score in SPPB indicates high risk for mobility disability

A

4-9

52
Q

Describe how to do the balance test in SPPB

A

Feet side by side hold for 10s
Semi tandem stand- feet together, one slightly in front of other, hold for 10s
Tandem stand- one foot in front of other, hold for 10s

53
Q

Describe how to do the gait speed test in SPPB

A

Walk at normal speed 4m (start timing when patient crosses first line and stop when patients foot touches next line)

54
Q

Describe how to do the chair stand test in SPPB

A

Check if safe to stand without help, and if they could stand without using arms
If they can do this do it repeated (x5) whilst being timed
Stop timing upon 5th chair stand

55
Q

define health inequalities

A

The preventable, unfair and unjust differences in health status between groups, populations or individuals that arise from the unequal distribution of social, environmental and economic conditions within societies which determine the risk of people getting ill, their ability to prevent sickness, or opportunities to take action and access treatment when ill health occurs.

56
Q

What makes a good infographic

A 
Context sensitive
Contains visual elements that are clear and relevant 
Makes key data easy to understand
Tells a story to audience
Guides conclusions
Can be easily shared
57
Q

Data should be…

A 
Inriguing
Informative
Easy to understand
Helpful 
Accurate
58
Q

what is the slogan for the 2010 marmot review

A

fair society, healthy lives

59
Q

what is the marmot review

A

proposes an evidence based strategy to address social determinants of health

Includes working conditions in which people are born, grow up, live and work which can lead to health inequalities

Emphasises the role of local government along with national government, voluntary & private sectors

60
Q

What did the marmot review find

A

the lower a persons social and economic status the poorer their health and lower their life expectancy

61
Q

What do health inequalities arise from

A 
Housing
Income
Education
Employment
Social isolation
Disability 
Gender
Ethnicity
62
Q

Define deprivation

A

The damaging lack of material benefits considered to be basic necessities in a society

63
Q

What are the 7 domains of deprivation

A 
Income
Employment
Education
Health
Crime
Barriers to housing and services
Living environment
64
Q

What effects does deprivation have

A

Negative impact on healthy life expectancy
Increased risk for chronic diseases
More difficult to access healthy options/ behaviours

65
Q

CVD is more common in…

A

Men
Older adults
South asian/ Caribbean
Deprived areas

66
Q

How to prevent/ delay chronic diseases via lifestyle

A

Maintain a healthy body weight
Eating a wide variety of healthy foods & limited/ no alcohol
Meeting physical activity guidelines

67
Q

why aren’t study samples always reflective of population diversity

A

Cost
Practicality/ convenience (language, availability, willingness to participate)
Lack of diversity in areas where research is conducted
Research questions are purposively targeted to a limited demographic
Desire to protect vulnerable groups (elderly people could have dementia)
Optimise positive or beneficial findings eg- testing medications on the young instead of older adults

68
Q

What are implications of conducting research with samples that do not reflect population diversity??

A

Research findings may not be applicable to those who are underrepresented
Those who are not represented may be deprived of benefits resulting from research
Messages generated from research can lead to lack of awareness of disease risks
Findings do not reflect complex ‘lived experiences’ of diverse populations
Policies created from research could be harmful to those not represented

69
Q

Do you always need diverse samples

A

not always necessary as it depends on the research question and whether representation matters

70
Q

Define conflict of interest

A

a situation in which a person is in a position to derive personal benefit and unfair advantage from actions or decisions made in their official capacity

71
Q

Define researcher bias

A

any factor, such as investment in the product being studied or gifts from the product manufacturer that may influence the researcher to favour certain results

72
Q

Define selection bias

A

occurs when the individuals or groups recruited to participate in a study, or the data used in analysis’s are selected in a way that is not random

73
Q

Define self report bias

A

Occurs due to the error introduced when using self report tools

74
Q

Define recall bias

A

Bias resulting from differences in the ability of participants to accurately and completely recall the variable being measured

75
Q

Define reporting bias

A

Bias due to differences between reported and unreported results

76
Q

Define publication bias

A

Bias resulting from the tendency for medical and scientific journals to predominantly publish studies with POSITIVE results

77
Q

Define confounding

A

Error or inaccuracy in the estimated effect of an exposure
on the outcome of interest
due to the influence of another factor
that is associated with both the exposure and the outcome

78
Q

Define residual confounding

A

The error or inaccuracy that remains after controlling for confounding in the design or analysis of the study

79
Q

How to minimise researcher bias

A

Journals strengthening enforcement of disclosure requirements for authors and penalising authors who fail to disclose potential conflicts
Prohibit industry sponsors from participating in research design, data analysis and interpretation findings
Develop more accurate markers of various outcomes to reduce self-report and recall bias
Increase public funding to support well designed large scale, long term randomised control trials that examine cause and effect and reduce bias and confounding
Require journalists to publish studies with negative findings
Avoid language that implies causation when the results are indicative of associations
Convey to public that a perfect research study is impossible have to keep testing

80
Q

Define reliability

A

indicates the consistency of a given tool over a set period of time (typically 1-2 weeks)

81
Q

Define validity

A

indicates the ability of a given tool to measure what it is INTENDED to measure

82
Q

If something is valid is it reliable

A

Yes

To be valid it has to be reliable

83
Q

If something is reliable is it valid

A

not necessarily

Something can be reliable but not valid

84
Q

Describe Normative standards for height

A

Strongly influenced by genetics
Large variation globally
Challenging environments and poor nutritional conditions during early years can cause short adult height
We lose height as we age due to poor posture, arthritis, and compression of spine (hunch)

85
Q

Describe Normative standards for height

A

Varies widely
Genetics, nutrition & level/ type of physical activity major contributors
Normative standards are typically defined using body mass index (BMI) (kg/m2)

86
Q

how does IPAQ work

A

Asseses types and intensity of physical activities and sitting time (hours, minutes, number of days)
Estimates time spent sitting and total physical activity done at low, moderate, high intensity over the previous 7 days
Also gives a score in MET – min/week
Excellent reliability & good validity
Compare results to UK physical activity guidelines

87
Q

What are IPAQ guidelines

A
  1. Weekly recommendation
  2. For good physical & mental health adults should aim to be physically active every day
  3. Should do activities to develop or maintain major muscle groups – eg carrying heavy shopping, heavy gardening. Strengthening of muscle should be done 2 days a week
  4. Accumulate 2.5 hours of moderate intensity per week
  5. Or 75 mins of vigorous intensity such as running
  6. Or shorter durations of very vigorous intensity such as sprints or stair climbing
  7. Minimise time spent being sedentary – break up long periods with light activity
88
Q

What is the UKDDQ

A

UK diabetes & diet questionnaire
Conducted systematic review of brief dietary tools judged suitable for clinical practice by health professionals with non-specialist training in nutrition
Focused on CVD, obesity & type 2 diabetes
Focused exclusively on fat & fibre intake

89
Q

How do you collect the data for the UKDDQ

A

4 day food diaries

90
Q

What do the outcome letters represent in the UKDDQ

A

range from A to F

More A’s and B’s = healthier dietary scores
Linked with lower risk for type 2 diabetes & better blood glucose control if a person has diabetes
More C’s and D’s = less healthy dietary choices
More E’s and F’s = unhealthy dietary choices linked with higher risk for type 2 diabetes & poor blood glucose control if a person has diabetes

91
Q

What is the PAR-Q

A

A self-screening tool designed to assess whether or not it is safe for you to undertake exercise

92
Q

What activities are in the PAR-Q

A

Bleep test
Toe touch test
Back scratch test
Two hop jump

93
Q

what is the bleep test

A

(cardiorespiratory fitness)

Based on gender, age group & level/ number of shuttles completed

94
Q

what’s the toe touch test

A

flexibility of lower back & hamstrings
No normative standards
Touching ground with fingers/ hands indicates high level of flexibility
The further away the fingers are from the ground the lower your flexibility

95
Q

what does the back scratch test asses

A

shoulder range of motion
Based on age & gender
The higher the score the better range of motion at the shoulder

96
Q

Two hop jump

A

horizontal and vertical power of the legs combined with balance co ordination
No normative standards
The further one can jump the higher the leg power
Also involves balance & coordination which are not directly measured but implied within the test

97
Q

what are national surveys & stats

A

National health & behaviour surveys – large national surveys that are developed to gather info on health and disease and behaviours associated with health and disease

98
Q

What are national surveys used for

A
  1. Identify priorities for future research
  2. used to inform the media, general public and create national guidelines
  3. inform decisions about governmental budget setting and commissioning services
99
Q

Give examples of national surveys in UK

A 
National diet and nutrition survey
Health survey for England
Sport England active lives survey
National child measurement programme
Scottish health survey
100
Q

WHAT DOES

STATS ON OBESITY, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY & DIET REPORT- NHS digital include

A

Stats from multiple sources
6 parts that report on latest stats on obesity, physical activity and diet
Appendices…
Has full links to all sources of data
Technical notes (data collection/ reporting procedures)
Government policy, targets and outcome indicators
How the stats are used

Key highlights:
Obesity related hospital admissions
Prescription items for treatment of obesity
Prevalence of overweight and obesity in adults and children
Physical activity levels in adults and children
Walking and cycling activity
Fruit and veg consumption in adults and children
Food and nutrition intake

101
Q

What are some obesity trends

A

Obesity prevalence was higher for boys than girls in both age groups
Obesity prevalence was more than double for children living in deprived areas compared to those living in least deprived areas

102
Q

What are the lowest and most active age groups

A

most active 19-24

least active 85+

103
Q

what are the UK diet and nutrition recommendations

A

At least 5 portions of fruit and veg per day for those 11+
19+ average intake of red and processed meat should NOT exceed 70 g per day
At least 1 portion of oily fish (140g) per week for all ages
Limit free sugars to no more than 5% of daily calorie intake

104
Q

which gender is most likely to eat the 5 fruit and veg

A

women

105
Q

Define structurally missing

A

data missing for a logical reason (doesn’t exist)

106
Q

Define missing completely at random (MCAR)

A

Whether a person has missing data on a test is completely unrelated to other info in the data

107
Q

Define missing at random (MAR)

A

Persons missing data on a certain test can be predicted based on other info about the person & patterns in the data

108
Q

Define missing not at random (non ignorable)

A

Cannot make confident predictions about missing data

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