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B1.2 Nerves And Hormones Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a stimulus?

A

•A detectable change in the internal or external environment. That can stimulate a response or has an influence on a system to act.

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2
Q

What are examples of stimuli?

A

•Pain, heat, pressure, light, sound.

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3
Q

What are nerve impulses?

A

•Electrical messages that pass along a neurone.

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4
Q

What are receptors?

A

•Cells that detect stimuli.
E.g. Eyes contain light receptors and ears contain sound receptors.
•They convert information into impulses.
•The five sense organs contain different receptors.

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5
Q

What are neurones?

A
  • Nerve cells.

* They transmit information as electrical impulses.

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6
Q

What are nerves?

A

•A bundle of neurones connected to the brain or spinal cord.

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7
Q

How are neurones specialised cells?

A
  • They are very long, so nerve impulses can travel quickly to different parts of the body.
  • They have branched ends that form connections with many other neurones.
  • They have insulating sheaths that maintain the nerve impulse.
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8
Q

What are the features of a neurone?

Draw a diagram

A
  • Dendrite
  • Nucleus
  • Axon
  • Cytoplasm
  • Cell membrane
  • Nerve ending
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9
Q

What are sensory neurones?

A

•Nerve cells that transmit nerve impulses from a receptor to the central nervous system.

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10
Q

What are relay neurones?

A
  • Neurones in the central nervous system.

* Nerve cells that carry signas from the sensory neurone to the motor neurone.

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11
Q

What are motor neurones?

A

•Nerve cells that transmit nerve impulses from the central nervous system to an effector.

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12
Q

What are effectors?

A

•A structure that the nervous system causes to respond (a muscles or gland).

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13
Q

What is the central nervous system?

A
  • Brain and spinal cord.
  • Where all the information from sense organs are sent.
  • Where reflexes and actions are coordinated.
  • Where neurones transmit information to and from.
  • Where instructions are sent to effectors.
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14
Q

What are synapses?

A

•Junctions between nerve cells.

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15
Q

What happens at a synapse?

A
  • The nerve impulse arrives at the end of a neurone and chemicals (neurotransmitter) are released.
  • These diffuse across the synapse and cause a new nerve impulse in the next neurone.
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16
Q

Give some examples of where receptors are located in the body:

A
  • Eyes.
  • Ears.
  • Tongue.
  • Skin.
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17
Q

How do light receptor cells work?

A
  • They have a nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane.
  • Information from receptors pass along neurones in nerves to the spinal cord and the brain.
  • The brain coordinates the response.
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18
Q

What are reflex actions?

A

•Automatic and rapid responses to stimuli that often protect our body from harm.

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19
Q

What do reflex actions involve?

A
  • Receptors detect stimuli.
  • Sensory, relay and motor neurones.
  • The path way starting with a stimulus and resulting in a responses does not require conscious control by the brain.
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20
Q

What happens in a simple reflex action?

A

1) . Impulses from a receptor pass along a sensory neurone to the central nervous system.
2) . There is a synapse between a sensory neurone and a relay neurone in the central nervous system.
3) . A chemical is released at the synapse between the sensory neurone and relay neurone.
4) . This then causes impulses to be sent along the relay neurone.
- this then repeats with the relay and motor neurone-
5) . Impulses are sent along the motor neurone to the effector.
6) . An effector is either a muscle or a gland and causes them to respond.

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21
Q

How do muscles respond?

A

•Contracting

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22
Q

How do glands respond?

A

•Releasing (secreting) chemical substances.

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23
Q

What is controlled in the human body?

A 
Internal conditions are controlled:
•Water.
•Ions.
•Temperature.
•Blood sugar levels.
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24
Q

How is water content in the body controlled?

A

Water leaves the body:
•Via the lungs when we breathe out water vapour.
•Via the skin when we sweat to cool down.
•Via the kidneys in urine.
•The amount of water lost depends on what type of day it is.

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25
Q

What are ions in the body?

A

•Minerals that our body needs e.g. Potassium, sodium…

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26
Q

How is the content of ions controlled?

A
  • Ions are lost via the skin when we sweat.

* Excess ions are lost via kidneys in urine.

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27
Q

Why is the temperature controlled?

A
  • Controlled by the brain.
  • Maintains the temperature at which enzymes can function the best.
  • Enzymes work best at body temperatures (37 degrees Celsius).
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28
Q

What are enzymes?

A

•Protein molecules that control reactions inside and outside cells.

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29
Q

Why are blood sugar levels controlled?

A
  • To provide cells with a constant supply of energy- the hormone insulin maintains the right level.
  • Sugars are taken in as carbohydrates.
  • Depends how much exercise you do as more glucose is removed.
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30
Q

What are hormones?

A
  • A chemical substance produced in the body that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs.
  • They are chemical messengers.
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31
Q

Where are hormones produced?

A

•They are secreted by glands.

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32
Q

How are hormones transported?

A
  • They are transported through the blood in blood plasma to their target organs and cells.
  • They have a longer lasting effect.
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33
Q

What do hormones do?

A

•They regulate the function of many organs and cells that need constant adjustment.

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34
Q

What are some examples of hormones in the body?

A
  • Oestrogen.

* FSH…

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35
Q

Receptors cells in the eye detect?

A

•Light.

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36
Q

Receptors cells in the ear detect?

A
  • Sound.

* ‘Balance’ receptors are sensitive to changes in positions.

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37
Q

Receptor cells in the nose detect?

A

•Smell, a chemical stimuli.

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38
Q

Receptor cells in the skin detect?

A

•Heat and pressure.

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39
Q

What is the order of the process of the nerve system ?

A
  • Heat (stimuli).
  • Pain/hear felt by skin (receptor) .
  • Sensory neurone
  • Relay neurone (found in spinal cord).
  • Motor neurone (found in muscle).
  • Effector (remove of skin from heat).
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40
Q

What is the special chemical released when a nerve impulse arrives at the end of a neurone?

A

•Neurotransmitter chemical.

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41
Q

What are all the other nerves other than the brain and spinal cord called?

A

•Peripheral nervous system (PNs).

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42
Q

Name some hormones:

A

•Oestrogen, thyroxin, insulin, Glucagon, etc.

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43
Q

Where are hormones released?

A
  • In endocrine glands into the blood stream.

* They then travel around the body in the blood to the target organs.

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44
Q

Are hormones faster or slower than the nerve system?

A

•Hormones are slower but have a longer lasting effect.

45
Q

What do hormones do?

A

•Hormones stabilise the body’s internal environment and also have roles in the growth and sexual development.

46
Q

What are the two types of glands?

A

•Endocrine and Exocrine.

47
Q

What are the 4 main factors within the body that needs to be controlled?

A

•Temperature, blood sugar, ions (sodium, potassium,etc), water.

48
Q

What is the menstrual cycle?

A
  • The monthly release of an egg from a woman’s ovaries.
  • Controlled by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland and by the ovaries.
  • Involved in promoting the release of the egg.
49
Q

What is FSH?

A

Follicle-stimulating hormone:
•Secreted by the pituitary gland.
•Causes eggs to mature in the ovaries.
•Stimulates the ovaries to produce oestrogen.

50
Q

What does inhibit mean?

A

•To decrease the rate of action of or stop (a chemical reaction).

51
Q

What is LH?

A

Luteinising hormone:
•Secreted and produced by the pituitary gland.
•Stimulates the release of eggs from the ovaries at the middle of the menstrual cycle.

52
Q

What is the pituitary gland?

A
  • The major endocrine gland, a pea-sized body attached to the base of the brain.
  • It is important in controlling growth and development and the functioning of the other endocrine glands.
  • Releases the hormones FSH and LH.
53
Q

What are the 4 stages of the menstrual cycle?

A
  • Stage 1- Day 1 is when the bleeding starts. The uterus lining breaks down for about 4 days.
  • Stage 2- The lining of the uterus builds up again, from day 4 to day 14, into a thick spongy layer of blood vessels, ready to receive a fertilised egg
  • Stage 3- An egg is released from the ovaries at day 14 (ovulation).
  • Stage 4- The wall is maintained for about 14 days, until day 28. If no fertilised egg has landed on the uterus wall by day 28, the spongy lining starts to break down again and the whole cycle starts again.
54
Q

Can hormones change how fertile a women is?

A

•Yes, the hormones FSH , LH, oestrogen and progesterone can be used to artificially change how fertile a women is.

55
Q

How can the hormone oestrogen be used to reduce fertility?

A
  • Oestrogen can be used to prevent the release of an egg- so it can be used as a method of CONTRACEPTION.
  • It prevents the production of FSH, so egg development and production stop.
56
Q

What is controlled in plants?

A

•Light, moisture and gravity.

57
Q

Where do shoots grow?

A
  • Towards light.

* Against the force of gravity.

58
Q

Where do roots grow?

A
  • Towards moisture.

* Towards gravity.

59
Q

What is auxin?

A
  • Hormone found in the roots and shoots of a plant.
  • It is produced in the stem tip- it moves backwards to stimulate cell elongation.
  • It controls growth- stimulates growth in the shoots, inhibits growth in the roots.
  • Controls the growth of a plant in response to light (phototropism), gravity (gravitropism) and moisture (hydrotropism).
  • Light causes more hormones to reach the side of the shoot in the shade causing the cells to elongate making the shoot bend.
  • Results in unique growth rates.
60
Q

How is the hormone progesterone used to reduce fertility?

A

•Progesterone reduces fertility by stimulating the production of thick cervical mucus which prevents any sperm getting through and reaching an egg.

61
Q

What are the pros of the pill?

A
  • 99% effective at preventing pregnancies.

* It reduces the risk of getting some sort of cancer.

62
Q

What are the cons of the pill?

A
  • It is not 100% effective so there is a chance of people getting good pregnant.
  • It causes side effects like headaches, nausea, irregular menstrual bleeding and fluid retention.
  • It doesn’t protect against STDs (sexually transmitted diseases).
63
Q

How can some women be infertile?

How can hormones be used to increase fertility?

A
  • Some women have levels of FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) that are too low to cause their egg to mature.
  • No eggs are released and the women can’t get pregnant.
  • The hormones FSH and LH can be injected by these women to stimulate egg release in their ovaries.
64
Q

What are the pros of hormones that increase fertility?

A

•It helps a lot of women to get pregnant.

65
Q

What are the cons of hormones that increase fertility?

A
  • It doesn’t always work- some women may have to do it many times, which can be expensive.
  • Too many eggs could be stimulated, resulting in unexpected multiple pregnancies (twins, triplets, etc).
66
Q

How does a contraceptive pill work?

A
  • May contain oestrogen and progesterone.
  • Inhibits FSH (production/secretion)- no eggs mature or are released.
  • The Mucus in the neck of the womb is thickened, so it is harder for the sperm to penetrate the womb and reach the egg.
  • The lining of the womb is thinned, so there is less chance of a fertilised egg in the womb to grow.
67
Q

Evaluate the methods used by Pincius in trialling his contraceptive pill:

A
  • Large scale gave better results.
  • Uneducated women, so if they could use the pill so could others.
  • Side effects were ignored.
  • The women were not informed about the pill.
  • The pill contained a high dose of hormones.
  • A pre-trial should have been done.
68
Q

How do we hear sounds?

A
  • Receptors in the ears detect sound waves/vibrations cause impulses/electrical signals to be sent to brain.
  • The brain co-ordinates responses.
  • Impulses are sent along nerves to muscles/effectors which contract to bring about response.
69
Q

Which hormones are used in infertility treatment?

A

•FSH and LH.

70
Q

What does phototropism mean?

A
  • How a plant responds to light.
  • Movement or growth of part of an organism (e.g. A plant shoot) towards (positive phototropism) a source of light, without overall movement of the whole organism.
71
Q

What is gravitropism

A
  • How a plant responds to gravity.

* Positive or negative response to gravity.

72
Q

What is auxin?

A
  • Plant hormone.

* They produce specific effects in the shoot tips and the root.

73
Q

Plants are sensitive to light, moisture and gravity. Their shoots grow…

A
  • Towards light.

* Against the force of gravity

74
Q

Plants are sensitive to light, moisture and gravity. Their roots grow…

A
  • Towards moisture.

* In the direction of the force of gravity.

75
Q

What does auxin control?

A

•Phototropism, hydrotropism and gravitropism (also called geotropism.)

76
Q

When a shoot tip is exposed to light…

A
  • Auxin moves down the stem from the tip.
  • Auxin diffuses away down the shoot to stimulate growth.
  • More auxin accumulates on the side that’s in the shade than the side that’s in the light.
  • This makes the cell grow (elongate) faster on the shader side, so the shoot bends towards the light.
77
Q

When a shoot is growing away from gravity…

A
  • Shoots are growing sideways.
  • Gravity produced an unequal distribution of auxin in the tip, with more auxin on the lower side.
  • This causes the lower side to grow faster, bending the shoot upwards.
78
Q

An uneven amount of moisture either side of a root produces more…

A
  • More auxin is on the side with more moisture.

* This inhibits growth on that side, causing the root to bend in the direction towards the moisture.

79
Q

What is IVF?

A
  • In-vitro fertilisation:
  • Fertilisation in the laboratory outside the mother’s body using the man’s sperm.
  • Theses fertilised eggs are grown into embryos (tiny balls of cells).
80
Q

At which day is the egg release from the ovary during the menstrual cycle?

A

•Day 14.

81
Q

What are the pros of IVF?

A
  • Fertility treatment can give an infertile couple a child.

* Excess embryos can be used in embryo research.

82
Q

What are the cons of IVF?

A
  • Some women have a strong reaction to the hormones e.g. vomiting, dehydration, etc.
  • Increase risk of cancer.
  • Multiple births (risky for mother and babies).
  • People believe that human population is growing too quickly.
  • Excess embryos may be used for embryo research, people disagree with this.
83
Q

What is a tropism?

A

•Response of a plant growth of movements there are negative and positive movements.

84
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

•The maintenance of a constant internal environment.

85
Q

What does temperature regulation ensure?

A
  • All enzymes in the body work the best.
  • Allows chemical reactions to work faster.
  • Prevents damage to cells.
86
Q

Which organ controls the amount of water in the body?

A

•Kidneys.

87
Q

How are hormones transported around the body?

A

•In the blood stream.

88
Q

What is hydrotropism?

A
  • A plant’s response to water.

* Roots= positive response.

89
Q

What are the five sense organs?

A
  • Eyes.
  • Nose.
  • Ears.
  • Tongue.
  • Skin.
90
Q

What are the differences between hormones and nerves?

A

Hormones:
•Slower action.
•Act for a long time.
•Act in a more general way.

Nerves:
•Very fast action.
•Act for a very short time.
•Act on a very precise area.

91
Q

What is produced in the ovaries? (Hormones)

A
  • Progesterone.

* Oestrogen.

92
Q

What is progesterone?

A
  • Maintains the lining of the uterus.
  • The less levels of progesterone, the lining breaks down.
  • Inhibits the production of LH.
93
Q

What is oestrogen?

A
  • Produced and secreted by the ovaries.
  • Stimulates the production of LH.
  • Inhibits further production of FSH.
  • Thickens the lining of the uterus.
94
Q

What can plant hormones be used for?

A
  • Agriculture- large scale business involving cultivating of soil.
  • Horticulture- small scale cultivation of plants.
  • Killing weeds- Chemicals are used for specific weeds causing the weed to grow quickly and the weed cannot sustain this growth rate and dies.
  • Growing cuttings- adding rooting powder, which contains a growth hormone and roots are produced rapidly.
  • Ripening fruit- it can delay the ripening during transportation of when the fruit is on the plane. Ripening hormone is added in time for the supermarket.
  • Dormancy- the hormone gibberellin breaks dormancy, allowing seeds to germinate all times if the year.
95
Q

What is the nervous system?

A

•It enables humans to react to their surroundings and coordinate their behaviour.

96
Q

What do light receptor cells consist of?

A

•Nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane.

97
Q

How is the use of artificial fertility controlling hormones used?

A
  • Hormones are synthesised artificially.

* These are similar to human hormones but artificially affect the way the body works.

98
Q

What are oral contraceptives? (Birth-control pills)

A
  • They contain hormones to inhibit FSH production so no eggs mature.
  • They may contain oestrogen and progesterone to inhibit egg maturation. (Mostly progesterone).
99
Q

What was wrong with the first birth-control pills?

A
  • They contained too much oestrogen.

* Leading to women suffering side effects.

100
Q

How are fertility drugs used?

A
  • They are given to women with low levels of FSH.
  • They contains FSH and LH.
  • Eggs are stimulated to mature.
  • They can be used in IVF.
101
Q

What does IVF involve?

A
  • Giving a mother FSH and LH to stimulate the maturing of several eggs.
  • Eggs are collected and fertilised by the sperm from the father.
  • The fertilised egg develops into embryos.
  • One or two embryos are inserted into the uterus.
102
Q

How does auxin affect the growth of root cells?

A
  • It inhibits growth.

* The root curves away from the stimulus.

103
Q

How does auxin affect the growth of shoot cells?

A
  • It increases growth.

* The shoot curves towards the stimulus.

104
Q

What are the disadvantages of using artificial plant hormones in agriculture and horticulture?

A
  • Chemicals may enter the food chain.

* Weed killers also kill other wild plant species.

105
Q

How are hormones rooted?

A
  • Cuttings are taken from a plant.
  • The cutting is dipped into rooting powders.
  • The hormones cause cells in the cutting to develop into roots.
106
Q

What is the order in which hormones are released during the menstrual cycle?

A
  • FSH- causes eggs to mature in the ovaries and stimulates oestrogen to be produced.
  • Oestrogen- inhibits FSH and causes LH to be produced.
  • LH- stimulates the release of an egg.
  • Progesterone- thickens the lining of uterus.
107
Q

What happens when roots grow towards gravity?

A
  • A root growing sideways will always have more auxin on its lower side.
  • The extra auxin in the root inhibits growth, the cells on top elongate faster and the root bends down.
108
Q

What happens when roots grow towards moisture?

A
  • An uneven amount of moisture on either side of a root produces more auxin on the side with more moisture.
  • The auxin inhibits growth on the side, causing the root to bend in that direction, towards the moisture.
109
Q

How are plant hormones used in agriculture weedkillers?

A

•More weeds in crop fields are broad-leaved, selective weedkillers are made of plant growth hormones that only affect broad-leaved plants to disrupt their normal growth patterns and kills them and leaves other plants.

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