Attachment Flashcards
Attachment
It is two-way process that endures over time.
TRIGGER WORDS:
- Bond
- Leads to certain
- serves the function
An emotional bond between two people. It leads to a certain behaviours such as clinging and proximity-seeking, and serves the function of protecting an infant.
Caregiver
Any person who is providing care for a child,
Interactional synchrony
TRIGGER WORDS:
- two
- Mirror
- facial
When two people interact thet tend to mirror what the other is doing in terms of their facial and body movements.
Reciprocity
- responding action od
- elicit a
Responding to action of another with a similar action, where the actions of one partner elicit a response from the other partner.
Multiple attachment
Have one or more attachment figure
Primary attachment figure
(Usually a child’s biological mother)
- closet
- intensity
The person who has formed the closet bond with a child, demonstrated by the intensity of the relationship.
Seperation anxiety
Not neccessarlity the child’s biological father.
TRIGGER WORDS
- distress
The distress shown by an infant when separted from their caregiver.
Stranger anixety
TRIGGER WORDS:
- Distress
- unfamilar
The distress shown by an infant when approached or picked up by someone who is unfamilar
Imprinting
An innate readiness to develop a strong bond with the mother who takes place during a specific time in development, probably the first few hours after birth hatching.
Classical conditoning
Learning through association. A neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an uncondtioal stimlus so it eventually takes om the properties of this stimulus and is able to produce a conditioned response
Learning theory
The name given to a group of explanations (classical & operant) which explain behaviour in terms of learning rather than any inborn tendencies or higher order thinking.
Operant conditoning
Learning through reinforcement
Social learning theory
Learning through observing others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded.
Continuity hypothesis
The idea that emotionally secure go on to be emotionally secure, trusting and socially confident adults.
Critical period
A biologically determined period of time, during which certain characterstics can develop. Outside of this time window such development will not be possible.
Internal working model
A mental model of the world which enables individuals to predict and control their enviroment. In the case attachment the model relates to a person’s expecations about relationship.
Monotropy (monotropic)
The idea that the one relationship that the infant has with their primary attachment figure is of special significance in emotional development.
Social releaser
A social behaviour or characteristic that elicits caregibing and leads to attachment.
Insecure-avoidant
A type of attachment which describes those children who tend to avoid social interaction and intimacy with others
Insecure-resistant
A type of attachment which describes those infants who both seek and reject intimacy and social interaction
Secure attachment
This is a strong contented attach of an infant to his or her caregiver which develops as a rsult of sensetive responding by the caregiver to the infants needs
Strange situation
A controlled observation desinged to test attachment security
Cultural variations
The ways that different groups of people vary in terms of their social practices, and the effects these practices have on development and behaviour.
Deprivation
To be deprived to lose something. Loss of emotional care
Institutionalisation
The effect of instituional care. The term can be applied widley to the ffect of an institution but our concern focuses specifically on how time spent in an insituation such as an orphange can affect the development of a child
Internal working model
A mental model of the world which enables indivduals to predict and control their enviorment. In the case of attachment the model relates to a persons expecations about relationships.
What happened when monkeys were frightened
AO1
When frightened, all monkeys clung to the cloth-covered mother, and when playing with new objects the monkeys often kept one foot on the cloth covered mother for reassurance.
Suggests that monkey
Lorenz (1935)
An ethologist studying animal behaviour under relatively natural conditions.
Lorenz (1935) - Animal studies (Procedure)
Took a clutch of gosling eggs and divided them into two groups. One group was left with their natural mother while the other eggs were placed in an incubator. When the incubator eggs hatched the first living thing they saw was Lorenzo and they soon started following him.
Lorenz (1935) - Animal studies (Findings)
The goslings quickly divided themeselves up, one following their natural mother and the other following Lorenzo. Lorenzo’s brood shows no recongition of their natural mother.
Lorenz (1952) - Animal studies (Long-lasting effects)
Noted several features of imprinting, ege that the process is irreversibe and long lasting. He describe how one of these geese who imprinted on him, called martina used to sleep on his bed every night..
Lorenz (1952) - Animal studies (Long-lasting effects) Sexual imprinting
He also noted that this early imprinting had an effect on later mate preferences, calledd sexual imprinting. Animals (Especially birds) will choose to mate with the same kind of object upon whic they were imprinted.
Harlow (1959)
Conducted landmark research on attachment. Named his report ‘The origins of love and sought’ to demonstartate that mother love was not based on the feeding bond between mother and infant as predicted by learning theory.
Harlow (1959) Animal studies (Procedure)
AO1
Harlow creared two wire mothers each with a different ‘head’. One wire mother additonally was wrapped in soft cloth. 8 infant rehsus monkey were studied for a period of 165 days. For 4 monkeys the milk bottle was on the cloth-covered mother and on the plain wire’mother’ for the other 4 monkeys.
Harlow (1959) Animal studies (Findings)
(AO1)
Cloth-covered mother
- All 8 monkeys spent most of their time with the cloth-covered mother whether or not this mother had a feeding bottle.
- Those monkeys who fed from the wire mother ony spent a short amount of time getting milk then returned to the cloth-covered mother.
- When frightened, all monkeys clung to the cloth-covered mother, and when playing with new objects the monkeys often kept one foot on the cloth covered mother for reassurance. Findings suggest that infants fo not develop an attachment to the person who feeds them but to the person offering the comfort.
Harlow (1959) Animal studies (Long-lasting effects)
AO1
Later on the rhesus monkeys noted many consequences of their early attachment experiences and the motherless monkeys were sociallt abnormally even when they had contact comfort.
Harlow (1959) Animal studies (Findings)
(AO1)
Wired mother
Those monkeys who fed from the wire mother ony spent a short amount of time getting milk then returned to the cloth-covered mother.
What do findings of Harlow’s study suggest
Infants do not develop an attachment to the person who feeds them but the person offering contact comfort
Which two of the following are associated with an insecure-resistant attachment type?
Choose two from the options A, B, C, D and E.
A Extreme stranger anxiety
C Low willingness to explore the new environment
Suggest one way in which studies of attachment could be improved using controlled observations [ 3 marks]
- affords the opportunity for control of extraneous variables.
- E.g can control the setting which may change affect the results.
- the studies could easily be replicated so easy test for reliability
- Fairly quick to conduct which means that many observations can take place within a short amount of time.
- large sample = resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population.
State two effects of instiutionalisation [ 2 marks]
- delayed language development
2. delayed physical development, eg restricted growth
Instiutionalisation
Refers to the effects of growing up in an orphanage or children’s home. Children who are raised in these institutions often suffer from a lack of emotional care, which means that children are unable to form attachments.
In van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following countries was found to have the highest percentage of anxious-avoidant
children? Shade one box only.
A China
B Germany
C Great Britain
D Japan
B
n van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following countries was found to have the highest percentage of anxious-resistant
children? Shade one box only.
A China
B Germany
C Great Britain
D Japan
D
In van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following attachment types was found to be most common in all of the countries
investigated? Shade one box only.
A Anxious-avoidant
B Anxious-resistant
C Disorganised
D Secure
In van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following attachment types was found to be most common in all of the countries
investigated? Shade one box only.
A Anxious-avoidant
B Anxious-resistant
C Disorganised
D Secure
In van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following statements is correct?
Shade one box only.
A Cross-cultural studies of attachment only investigate the
variation between cultures and not the variation within cultures
B There was no difference in the variation within cultures
compared to the variation between cultures
C The variation between cultures was greater than the
variation within cultures
D The variation within cultures was greater than the variation
between cultures
D
Proud father Abdul was talking to his friend, as they were both watching Abdul’s
wife, Tasneem, interacting with their baby daughter, Aisha.
‘It’s amazing really’, said Abdul.
‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back. Tasneem
moves her head, Aisha moves hers, perfectly in time with each other.’
‘Yes’, agreed the friend. ‘It’s almost as if they are one person.’
With reference to Abdul’s conversation with his friend, outline two features of caregiver-infant interaction.
AO2 - outline
[4 Marks]
Interaction synchrony
Adults and babies respond in time to sustain communication
Proud father Abdul was talking to his friend, as they were both watching Abdul’s
wife, Tasneem, interacting with their baby daughter, Aisha.
‘It’s amazing really’, said Abdul.
‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back. Tasneem
moves her head, Aisha moves hers, perfectly in time with each other.’
‘Yes’, agreed the friend. ‘It’s almost as if they are one person.’
With reference to Abdul’s conversation with his friend, outline two features of caregiver-infant interaction.
AO2
[4 Marks]
Reciprocity/turn-taking
reciprocity - ‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back…’
Proud father Abdul was talking to his friend, as they were both watching Abdul’s
wife, Tasneem, interacting with their baby daughter, Aisha.
‘It’s amazing really’, said Abdul.
‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back. Tasneem
moves her head, Aisha moves hers, perfectly in time with each other.’
‘Yes’, agreed the friend. ‘It’s almost as if they are one person.’
With reference to Abdul’s conversation with his friend, outline two features of caregiver-infant interaction.
AO2 application
interactional synchrony
[4 Marks]
‘…as if they are one person..’/ ‘…perfectly in time with each other..’
wife, Tasneem, interacting with their baby daughter, Aisha.
‘It’s amazing really’, said Abdul.
‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back. Tasneem
moves her head, Aisha moves hers, perfectly in time with each other.’
‘Yes’, agreed the friend. ‘It’s almost as if they are one person.’
With reference to Abdul’s conversation with his friend, outline two features of caregiver-infant interaction.
AO2 - outline
[4 Marks]
Interaction flows both ways between adult and infanti
Explain how such observational research might be refinded through the use of behavioural categories [4 marks]
- Allow researcher/obserbers to tally observations into prearranged groupings
- Allow for more objective/scientific data recordings
- could result in greater reliability
- enable proposal of testable hypothesis
What is meant by ‘reciprocity’ in the context of caregiver-infant interaction?
[2 marks]
Responding to action of another with a similar action, where the actions of one partner elicit a response from the other partner.
Support for Reciprocity
AO3
Jaffe et al 1973
Showed that from birth babies move in a rhythm when interacting with an adult almost as if they were taking turns, as people when having a conversation.
Support for Reciprocity
AO3
Feldman (2007)
Interaction becomes more frequent and reciprocal from 3mths old, therefore reciprocity develops with age.
Support for Interactional Synchronicity
Isabella et al. (1989)
Observed 30 mothers and infants interactions and assessed degree of synchrony.
Also assessed quality of mother-infant attachments.
= high levels of synchrony assoc. with high quality attachments.
Meltzoff and Keith Moore (1977)
First interactional synchrony systematic study
AO1
-Study was conducted using an adult model who displayed one of three facial expressions or hand movements where the fingers moved in a sequence.
This suggests that imitation behaviour is perhaps not learnt but instead must be an innate response.s
Meltzoff and Keith Moore (1977)
First interactional synchrony systematic study
AO1
Findings
They found that theory was an association between the infant behaviour and that of the adult model and even later concluded in another study that this synchronised behaviour was evident in infants only three days old.
Meltzoff and Keith Moore (1977)
First interactional synchrony systematic study
AO1
What does this suggest
That Iimitation behaviour is perhaps not learnt but instead must be an innate response.s
Meltzoff (2005) - Developed a ‘like me’ hypothesis of infant development based on his research on interactional synchrony.
Meltzoff describes this as a three way process where infants identify their imitation, associate their own acts, and then project their own internal experiences onto others performing similar acts.
Meltzoff (2005) - Developed a ‘like me’ hypothesis of infant development based on his research on interactional synchrony.
Suggestion
This shows that infants are able to acquire an understanding of what people are thinking or feeling, thus supporting the ‘theory of mind’.
Meltzoff (2005) - Developed a ‘like me’ hypothesis of infant development based on his research on interactional synchrony.
Why is this a strength?
As it demonstrates the value of research as a fundamental part of conducting social relationships.
Marian et al. (1996) replicated the study by Murray and Trevarthen
couldn’t distinguish l from videotaped interactions with their mother, suggesting that infants are not actually responding to the adult
Marian et al. (1996) replicated the study by Murray and Trevarthen
SUGGESTION
This shows that there is a problem with the procedure rather than the ability of infants to imitate their caregiver, suggesting there is an inadequate amount of replicated studies surrounding research into infant and caregiver interactions.
Marian et al. (1996) replicated the study by Murray and Trevarthen -
LINK SENTENCE
Interactional syncrony
This implies that there is a lack of reliability within the studies.
Discuss infant-caregiver interactions. Refer to reciprocity and interactional synchrony in your answer. [16 mark]
What to include:
Define Reciprocity (AO1)
Define interactional synchrony (AO1)
Give a study of Reciprocity (AO1)
What it suggests (AO1)
Give a study of Interactional synchrony (AO3)
What it suggests (AO1)
Give a study of Reciprocity strength/Limitation (AO3)
Describe and evaluate animal studies of attachment [16]
AO3
Discuss Lorenzo & Harlow study
Implications of Animal Studies of Attachment
Evaluating Animal Studies of Attachment
Important practical application
Describe and evaluate animal studies of attachment [16]
(AO3)
Humans and monkeys are similar
Green (1994)
States that, on a biological level at least, all mammals (including rhesus monkeys) have the same brain structure as humans; the only differences relates to size and the number of connections.
Describe and evaluate animal studies of attachment [16]
(AO3)
Important practical applications
Describe and evaluate animal studies of attachment [16]
(AO3)
Weaknesses
Results cannot be generalised to humans
It is questionable whether findings and conclusions can be extrapolated and applied to complex human behaviours. It is unlikely that observations of goslings following a researcher or rhesus monkeys clinging to cloth-covered wire models reflects the emotional connections and interaction that characterises human attachments.
Describe and evaluate animal studies of attachment [16]
(AO3)
Weaknesses
Research is unethical
The use of animals in research can be questioned on ethical grounds. It could be argued that animals have a right not to be researched/ harmed. The pursuit of academic conclusions for human benefits could be seen as detrimental to non-human species.
Briefly evaluate research into caregiver-infant interaction. [4 marks] AO3 Failure to Replicate Koepke et al (1983)
Koepke et al (1983) failed to replicate Meltzoff and Moore’s findings due to the fact it was less carefully controlled. However, Marian et al. (1996) replicated the study by Murray and Trevarthen and found that infants couldn’t distinguish l from videotaped interactions with their mother, suggesting that infants are not actually responding to the adult.
• research may be socially sensitive, eg implications for working mothe
Briefly evaluate research into caregiver-infant interaction.
[4 marks]
AO3
well-controlled – studies ‘capture’ micro-sequences of interaction
A strength is that controlled observations often capture fine details as they are generally well-controlled procedures. EVIDENCE/EXAMPLE: For example, both the mother and the infant are filmed, often from multiple angles, this ensures that fine details of behaviour can be recorded and later analysed. Furthermore, babies are unaware that they are being observed so their behaviour does not change in response to controlled observations which is generally a problem for observational research. EVALUATION: This is positive because it means that in general the research has high internal validity — it is measuring what it is intending to measure.
Weaknesses:
Use your knowledge of the effects of institutionalisation to advise Anca’s new parents
about what to expect.
[5 marks]
- Delayed intellectual development – Anca may struggle more at school than other children, concepts as quickly
- disinhibited attachment – Anca may not know what counts as ‘appropriate’ behaviour towards strangers
- emotional development – Anca may experience more temper tantrums, etc.
- lack of internal working model – Anca may have difficulty interacting with peers, forming close relationships, etc.
- Anca may have been adopted before the age of 6 months and therefore and effects may not be as severe/long term had she been adopted later
Discuss the findings of research into cultural variations in attachment.
[8 marks]
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) – credit knowledge of individual percentages and
more general pattern of findings; more variation within countries than between countries
• Simonelli et al (2014) – lower rates of secure attachment and higher rates of insecure-avoidant
in Italian study attributed to long working hours
• Kyoung (2005) – details of comparison between US and Korean children
• Sagi et al (1991) – high rates of insecure-resistant attachments in Israeli children
meta-analyses include very large samples increasing validity of findings
• discussion of more variation within countries than between countries
• samples in studies may not represent the culture as a whole
• strange situation may be biased towards American/British culture
• more general methodological/ethical criticisms of the strange situation must be linked to the
findings of research into cultural variations for credit.
Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg’s (1988) Cultural variations
Meta-analysis summarized findings from 8 countries, The meta- analysis examined 32 studies and consulted nearly 2000 Strange Situation classifications in total.
8 Countries in Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg ’s (1988)
UK, US, Sweden, Japan, China, Holland, Germany & Israel.
The meta-analysis yielded a number of findings and conclusions:
- Average findings were consistent with Ainsworth’s original research = Secure 65% - Avoidant 21% - Resistant 14%
Intra-cultural variation was nearly 15 times greater than the cross-cultural variations. Van Ijzendoorn speculated that this was linked to differences in socio-economic factors and levels of stress that varied between samples used within each country.
6/8 countries produced findings that were proportionally consistent with Ainsworth & Bell (70).
Japan & Israel revealed a higher incidence of resistant than avoidant children.
Chinese findings revealed the lowest rate of secure attachments (50%) with the remaining children falling into the other categories equally.
It was concluded that the modest cross-cultural differences reflect the effects of mass media, which portrays similar notions of parenting.
Evaluation of Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg
Strengths
Comparison is aided by the standardised methodology. The use of the strange situation as a procedure means that a comparison can be made across cultures, and the reliability is therefore high
Evaluation of Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg
The study was not globally representative
Weaknesses
Recognised that data from less Western-oriented cultures were required to establish a more global perspective attachment classifications, pointing out that Africa, South America, and Eastern European socialist countries were not represented.
Evaluation of Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg - Overall findings are misleading
AO3
As a disproportionately high number of the studies reviewed were conducted in the USA (18/32), the overall findings would have been distorted by these. This means that the apparent consistency between cultures might not genuinely reflect how much attachment types vary between cultures.
Applying Strange Situation procedures and behavioural categories is ethnocentric –
AO3 Weaknesses
E: Cross-cultural research using the Strange Situation judges and categorises infant behaviour according to behavioural categories that were developed following observations of middle-class American infants.
E: This means that when researchers interpret non-American infant behaviour, it is being judged against an American standard. Eg. an infant exploring the playroom by themselves would be classed as avoidant based on American standards but is valued as reflecting independence in Germany
Name three of the stages of attachment identified by Schaffer.
[3 marks]
- The beginnings of attachment
- Discriminate attachment
- Multiple attachment stage
The role of the father
Belsky et al. (2009)
AO3
Fathers form secure attachments when in intimate marriages
AO3 The role of the father
Geiger (1996)
Fathers play interactions are more exciting than mothers
Outline the findings of the role of the father in attachment. [4 marks]
- Not biologically equipped to form attachments]
- ‘Playmate role’
- Sensitve responsiveness
ANIMAL STUDIES OF ATTACHMENT
AO3 The role of the father (1999)
Fathers are unable to detect low level infant distress
Biological determinism
Studies for role of the father
Schaffer and Emerson - Father less likely to be primary attachment figures
Bowlby (1951) - consequenes of absent father
Lamb et al. (1987) - role of the father is complex; engagement (direct interaction)
EXPLANATIONS FOR ATTACHMENT
CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN ATTACHMENT
AINSWORTH’S STRANGE SITUATION
BOWLBY’S THEORY OF MATERNL DEPRIVATION
- Romanian orphan studies effcts of instiutionalisation
Lorenz Research AO3
2
Research support imprinting
Criticisms of imprinting
Harlow’s Research AO3
Confound variable
Generalising animal studies to human behaviour
Ethics of Harlow’s study
Research to support imprinting
Guiton (1996)
P: A strength of Lorenz’s concept of imprinting has been replicated in studies with other bird species.
E: Guiton (1996) demonstrated that leghorn chicks, exposed to yellow rubber gloves while being fed durin gthe first few weeks, became imprinted on the gloves.
E: This supports the view that young animals are not born with predispostion to imprint on a specfic type of object but probably on a moving thing that is present during the critical window of development.
L: Therefore Guiton’s findings provide clear support for Lorenz’s original research and conclusions
Critisms of imprinting
AO3
P: There is some dispute over than characteristics of imprinting
E: Hoffman (1966) Found that imprinting is now a ‘plastic’ and more fogiving mechanism. E.g Guiton (1966) found that he could reverse the imprinting in chickens that initally tried to mate with the rubber gloves. He later found after spending time with their own species, they were able to engage in normal sexual behaviour with other chickens.
E: This suggests that imprinting may not, after all be very different from any other kind of learning. Lerning can also take place rapidly with very little conscious effort and is fairly reversible.
Confounding variables in Harlow’s study
AO3
PEE
P: One critiscim that has been made of Harlow’s study is that the two wire surrogates varied in more ways than just being cloth-covered or not.
E: The two heads were different which acted as a confounded variable as it varied systematically with the IV (Mother being cloth-cover or not) It is likely that the infant monkey preffered one mother to the other bc they found one head more attractive.
E: This suggests that Harlow’s study lacked internal validty as differences between the two monkey surrogates were not suffienctly controlled.
Generalising animal studies to human behaviour
PEE
P: Despite differences between humans and animals, Harlow’s findings about attachment have been mirrored in humans.
E: Harlow’s findings that monkeys were not most attached to the wire ‘mother’ that provided food has also been demonstrated in the work of Schaffer and Emerson, which empasied the importance of sensitve responding in the development of attachments
E: This shows that, although animal studies such as Harlow’s provide useful pointers to explaining human behaviour, we should ask confirmation through research with humans.
Ethics of Harlow’s study
AO3+
PEE
P: Eventhough the study was not done on humans, there are still some questions on whether the study should be done on animals
E: This is because the study caused long lasting harm on the monkeys later found it difficult to form relationships with their peers. The experiment could be justified in terms of significant effects it has had on our understanding of the processes of attachment, and the research derived from this study has been used to offfer better care of human and infants
E: Therefore it could be argued that the benefits outweight the costs to the animals involved in the study. Such criticisms do not challenge the findings of the research but are important in monitoring what counts as good science.
