Attachment Flashcards
4 words that describe attachment
Strong Enduring Emocional Reciprocal bond between two people
What is reciprocity?
Responding to the actions of another
Kind of conversation
One action elicits a response from another
What is interactional synchrony?
The way people mirror each others actions
Who did the study into interactional synchrony?
Mettzoff and Moore
When was the study into interactional synchrony?
1977
Who were the participants in the study into interactional synchrony?
Babies aged 3-4 weeks and their parents
What 4 actions did the parents show their babies in the study into interactional synchrony?
Mouth open
Mouth closed
Tongue out
Tongue in
What was the role of the researcher in the study into interactional synchrony?
Babies responses were recorded and shown to the researcher who tallied the babies responses into behavioural categories, without knowing the parents actions
What were the findings of the study into interactional synchrony?
Results of 0.92
Strong correlation
What is a strength of the study into interactional synchrony?
Highlights importance of…
Highlights the importance of early care and attachment as it proves attachment occurs immediately
What is a limitation of the study into interactional synchrony?
Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget called this study pseudo (false) as she proposed infants are only capable of true imitation at the end of their first year
Before this, its response training which is when an infant repeats behaviour because it gets rewarded with smiling and attention (operant conditioning) rather than consciously translating what they’ve seen
What is response training?
When an infant repeats behaviour because it gets rewarded with smiling and attention (operant conditioning) rather than consciously translating what they’ve seen
What is a limitation of the study into interactional synchrony?
Testing infant behaviour
As babies mouths are constantly in motion, it is difficult to distinguish between whether the tested expressions happened consciously or naturally
Who did the study into stages of attachment?
Schaffer and Emerson
When was the study into stages of attachment?
1964
Who were the participants in the study into stages of attachment?
60 infants aged 5-23 weeks to 1 year old From working class families in Glasgow
Who and when was the information supplied in the study into stages of attachment?
Data was supplied from the mothers every 4 weeks
What is stage 1 of the stage model?
Indiscriminate attachment
When does stage 1 of the stage model occur?
Up to 3 months
What are key features of stage 1 of the stage model?
Infant is not attached to a particular caregiver
Babies respond equally to all caregivers
Does not display separation or stranger anxiety
What is stage 2 of the stage model?
The beginnings of attachment
When does stage 2 of the stage model occur?
Around 4 months
What are key features of stage 2 of the stage model?
Infants learn to distinguish between primary and secondary caregivers
Accept care from anyone
Does not display separation or stranger anxiety
Characterised by general sociability (enjoys being with people)
What is stage 3 of the stage model?
Specific/ discriminate attachment
When does stage 3 of the stage model occur?
After 7 months
What are key features of stage 3 of the stage model?
Infant looks to particular people (primary and secondary caregivers) for security and protection
Displays separation and stranger anxiety
At what stage of the stage model does separation and stranger anxiety begin?
Stage 3
Specific/ discriminate attachment
What is stage 4 of the stage model?
Multiple attachments
When does stage 4 of the stage model occur?
By the age of 1 year
What are key features of stage 4 of the stage model?
Infant becomes increasingly independent
Forms several attachments, such as to siblings and grandparents
Displays separation and stranger anxiety
Displays separation anxiety with both primary and secondary caregiver
What is a strength of the stage model?
Allowed them to…
Allowed them to make a stage model which is still used today to identify and analyse behaviour and underdevelopment
What is a limitation of the stage model?
Mothers reports
The results are based on mothers reports of their infants
This means they could be affected by social desirability bias as they may of stated false information to look better
Evidence wasn’t gained scientifically which decreases validity
What is a limitation of the stage model?
Out of date research
Arguably out of date research as the study was conducted in the 1960s
At this time, there was a patriarchal society in which the father had long working hours and mothers were left at home to be the primmer caregiver
As society has changed substantially in the last 60 years, there may be different results if the study was repeated today
What is a limitation of the stage model?
Psychological harm
The stage model states what a child should be achieving at a certain age
If they are not, this could lead the parents to believe they are ‘bad parents’, causing emotional and psychological harm
What is a limitation of the stage model?
Can’t be generalised
The study used a small sample of 60 babies from working class families in Glasgow This means there is a cultural and class bias so cannot be generalised to the wider population
What did Lamb propose was the role of the father?
1977
The patriarchal society meant that men had longer working hours and so spent less time with their infants, meaning the mother was most often the primary caregiver
Biological factors include the production of oestrogen in women (and not men) making fathers less sensitive to infants cues
What did Geiger propose was the role of the father?
More of a playmate
Stimulates Childs adventurous side and helps with role playing and risk taking characteristics
What is ethology?
The scientific and objective study of animal behaviour in natural conditions
What is Lorenz definition of imprinting?
The evolved and innate ability of animals to make attachments to the first thing they see
Provides protection and encourages learning of survival behaviour
Usually the biological mother
What year was Lorenz’ study into imprinting?
1935
What was the aim of Lorenz’ study into imprinting?
To investigate imprinting in grey lag geese
Who were the participants in Lorenz’ study into imprinting?
A clutch of grey lag geese
How many groups were the geese split into in Lorenz’ study into imprinting?
The geese were split into two groups:
Half were returned to the natural mother and the other half were placed in an incubator
What was the procedure of Lorenz’ study into imprinting?
A clutch of grey lag geese were split into 2 groups
Half were returned to the natural mother and the other half were placed in an incubator
When the incubator eggs hatched, the first thing the geese saw was Lorenz
They then continually followed him around which indicated imprinting had occurred
To test this further, Lorenz later put all the geese and their natural mother in the same room
Whoever was present at hatching was who the goslings followed
What were the findings of Lorenz’ study into imprinting?
Lorenz found that imprinting occurred in a critical period of 48 hours, although his geese imprinted within 14 hours
If the animal is not exposed to a moving object within the critical period then imprinting will not occur
What is a strength of Lorenz’ study into imprinting?
Natural experiment
As an ethologist, Lorenz used a natural experiment in which he studied the geese in their natural conditions and environment
This increases the ecological validity of the study
What is a strength of Lorenz’ study into imprinting?
Further support by…
(cheep cheep)
Further support by Guiton (1960) exposed leghorn chicks to yellow rubber gloves whilst feeding so that they imprinted on them
What is a limitation of Lorenz’ study into imprinting?
Cannot be generalised
The results of this study cannot be generalised to other animals or humans as only one breed of geese were used
There is no evidence that other species would display the same results
What is a limitation of Lorenz’ study into imprinting?
Extraneous variables
There was no control over extraneous variables as this was a natural experiment
Who studied the origins of love and attachment?
Harlow
When was the study into the origins of love?
1958
What was the aim of the study into the origins of love?
To disprove the learning theory (which proposed attachments occurred due to a feeding bond)
Who were the participants in the study into the origins of love?
8 rhesus monkeys that were studied for a period of 165 days
What was the procedure of the study into the origins of love?
The 8 rhesus monkeys were each exposed to 2 ‘mothers’ which were dome- shaped wire figures with constructed monkey- like faces
There was a cloth mother and a wire mother
In condition 1, a milk bottle was placed on the wire mother and in condition 2 it was put on the cloth mother
The time spent on each mother was measured
Reactions of the infant monkeys when scared (e.g. mechanical bear introduced) were also measured to see which mother the monkey would run to
What were the findings of the study into the origins of love?
All 8 monkeys spent the most time on the cloth mother regardless of where the milk bottle was- often up to 18 hours a day
They often went to the wire mother to drink, then straight to cloth mother
They all ran straight to cloth mother when scared
This disproves the learning theory as it proves that comfort is more important than food
What is a strength of the study into the origins of love?
Disproves…
Research into attachment that disproves the learning theory
What is a strength of the study into the origins of love?
Animal studies
Harlow was able to do studies that can’t be done on humans
What is a strength of the study into the origins of love?
Lab study
This was a lab study so not affected by extraneous variables
High internal validity
What is a limitation of the study into the origins of love?
Confounding variables
There are confounding variables which cannot be planned for but affects the measurements/ DV
This refers to the different ‘faces’ of the mothers which the monkeys may have perceived as more or less comforting or natural
This could explain why the monkeys preferred the cloth mother, but cannot be tested
What is a limitation of the study into the origins of love?
Cannot be generalised
The results cannot be generalised to humans as animals have different cognitive functions and physiology (bodies)
If done on humans, the results of the study may differ
What is a limitation of the study into the origins of love?
Animal studies
Ethical issues as the infant monkeys suffered emotional harm
Also effected their later ability to mate and form bonds
What is a limitation of the study into the origins of love?
Lab study
As this was a lab study that took place in an artificial setting, the results have low ecological validity as the monkeys may have acted unnaturally
What approach is the learning theory as an explanation
for attachment?
Biological, behaviourist or cognitive
Behaviourist
Suggests we learn from our environment and through nurture
What is the learning theory as an explanation for attachment?
We learn all behaviours from our environment
Children are ‘blank slates’ (tabula rosa)
Everything they have learnt can be explained by experiences they have had
Includes cupboard love theory
Can be explained by classical and operant conditioning
What is the cupboard love theory?
Attachment is based on provision of food
How can the learning theory be explained through classical conditioning?
Before conditioning
Before conditioning:
The food is a UCS (unconditioned stimulus) that causes a UCR (unconditioned response) of feeding pleasure and the mother is an NS (neutral stimulus) as she causes no response
How can the learning theory be explained through classical conditioning?
During conditioning
The mother (NS) is consistently paired with the food (UCS) which causes pleasure (UCR)
How can the learning theory be explained through classical conditioning?
After conditioning
The mother and milk both become a CS (conditioned response) that causes a CR (conditioned response) of pleasure, so the infant will seek the mother
How can the learning theory be explain through operant conditioning?
Positive reinforcement
Any behaviour that produces a pleasant consequence or reward which makes it more likely for the behaviour to be repeated
How can the learning theory be explain through operant conditioning?
Negative reinforcement
Behaviour that switches off something unpleasant is likely to be repeated
Who proposed the drive reduction theory and when?
Dollard and Miller
1950
What type of conditioning is the drive reduction theory a part of?
Explains how attachment occurs due to operant conditioning
What is the process of the drive reduction theory?
- Hungry infant feels uncomfortable which creates a drive (motivation) to reduce this discomfort
- When the infant is fed, this discomfort of hunger is reduced (negative reinforcement) and feelings of pleasure are produced (positive reinforcement)
- Food becomes the primary reinforcer because it supplies the reward
- The person who supplies the food (primary reinforcer) is associated with avoiding discomfort so becomes a secondary reinforcer
An attachment occurs because the infant seeks the person who can supply the reward
How can the drive ruction theory cause an attachment to form?
The person who supplies the food (primary reinforcer) is associated with avoiding discomfort so becomes a secondary reinforcer
An attachment occurs because the infant seeks the person who can supply the reward
What is a strength of the learning theory?
Further research into…
Further research into classical and operant conditioning proves that we do learn from these methods
This includes Pavlovs dogs and Skinners rat box
What is a strength of the learning theory?
Strong argument for…
Provides a strong argument for the nurture side of the nature- nurture debate
What is a limitation of the learning theory?
Cannot be generalised
As the results are based on animal studies (Pavlovs dogs and Skinners rat box), they can’t be generalised to humans as they have different cognitive functions and physiology (bodies)
What is a limitation of the learning theory?
Ignores other research
Ignores other research that suggests other factors lead to attachments, such as Harlows rhesus monkeys how spent up to 18 hours a day on the cloth mothers as they provided comfort, rather than food
What approach was Bowlbys explanation for attachment?
Biological, behaviourist or cognitive
Biological
Suggests attachment is innate and evolutionary
What are Bowlbys 5 monotropic explanations for attachment?
ASCMI
Adaptive Social releases Critical period Monotropy Inner working model
What does Bowlbys adaptive explanation for attachment propose?
Proposes that attachment is innate and evolutionary
Attachment behaviours in babies and their caregiver have adapted through natural selection to ensure the baby services to reach maturity and reproduce
What does Bowlbys social releases explanation for attachment propose?
Proposes that we have developed social releases
In babies, this is crying and smiling which encourages caregiver to look after them
Parents, especially mothers, posses instincts designed to protect their baby from harm and to nurture them to ensure survival to maturity
What does Bowlbys critical period explanation for attachment propose?
The process attachment takes place within a critical period during the first 2 1/2 years of the child’s life, with attachment starting at around 6 months
Attachments between caregivers and infants should not be broken or disrupted for any reason during this critical period or there would be consequences
What does Bowlbys monotropic explanation for attachment propose?
Monotropy suggests a single attachment to one iron who is most important to the baby
Bowlby did not deny that babies formed multiple attachments, but he believed that for every infant, one relationship is more important than the rest
How was Bowlbys inner working model an explanation for attachment?
The first attachment between infant and caregiver provides the child with an internal working model/ template for their future relationships
he child builds up a model of themselves as loveable or not, and a model of there caregiver as trustworthy or not
This begins in early childhood and influences a child’s later relationships through to adulthood
Referred to as the continuity hypothesis
What is a strength of Bowlbys monotropic explanation for attachment?
Further research
Further research support can be found in Lorenz work on imprinting which showed the the geese imprinted immediately on a monotropic figure, which was either himself or the natural mother
This also showed there was a critical period
What is a strength of Bowlbys monotropic explanation for attachment?
Led to changes
His work led to changes in the way we see the important of attachment
Infants are now adopted as early as possible
Changes to maternity leave to support early attachment
What is a limitation of Bowlbys monotropic explanation for attachment?
Critical period
A criticism of the term ‘critical period’
Michael Rutter proposed it should be renamed ‘sensitive period’, as many individuals that had poor early attachment experiences have gone on to have successful later relationships
States that bowl by is deterministic and fails to recognise free will, as it deems some people to a poor adulthood, which s untrue
Who conducted the study into types of attachment?
Ainsworth
What was the name of the study into types of attachment?
The Strange Siuation
When was the strange situation study conducted?
1970s
What psychologist was Ainsworth a student of?
Bowlby
She wanted to extend his research into attchment
What was the aim of he strange situation study?
To investigate the different types of attachemnt between babies and caregivers
Who were the participants of the strange situation study?
Mothers and their infants aged between 9-18 months
Where did the strange situation study take place?
A small room with chairs and bby toys
How many episodes did the procedure have?
The procedure had 8 episodes
What generally happened in the episodes?
The infants responses were measured and recorede
How long did the episodes last?
Episode 1 lasted 30 seconds, with the others lasting around 3 minutes
What 4 attachemt behaviours were being tested?
Parent as a secure base
Stramnger anxiety
Se[aration anxiety
Reunion behaviour
What happened in episode 1 of the strange situation?
The researcher introduces parentt and baby to playroom, then leaves
What happened in episode 2 of the strange situation?
The parent is seated while bby plays with toys
What attachment behaviour was being tested in episode 2 of the strange situation?
Parent as a secure base
What happened in episode 3 of the strange situation?
The stranger enters, is seated and talks to parent
What attachemnt behaviour was being tested in episode 3 of the strange situation?
Stranger anxiety
What happened in episode 4 of the strange situation?
The parent leaves the room and the stranger responds to the baby by offering comfort if necessary
What attachment behavioir was being tested in episode 4 of the strange situation?
Separation anxiety
What happened in episode 5 of the strange situation?
The parent returns, greet baby and offers comfort is necessary
The stranger leaves the room
What attachment behaviour was being tested in episode 5 of the strange situation?
Reunion behaviour
What happened in episode 6 of the strange situation?
The parent leaves the room
What attachment behaviour was being tested in episode 6 of the strange situaion?
Separation anxiety
What happened in episode 7 of the strange situation?
The stranger enters the room and responds to the baby by offering comfort if necessary
What attachment behaviour was being tested in episode 7 of the strange situation?
Stranger anxiety
What happened in episode 8 of the strange situation?
The parent returns, greets baby, offers comfort if necesary and tries to reinterst baby in toys
What attachment behaviour was being tested in episode 8 of the strange situation?
Reunion behaviour
What is proximity, in terms of the strange situation study?
Secuse base bahaviour
Good attachmnt enables a baby to feel confident to explore, but sill stay close to mother for comfort
What is stranger anxiety?
Anxiety whn a stranger approaches
What is separation anxiety?
Protest at separation from caregiver
What in reunion behaviour, in terms of the strange situation study?
How the child reacts upon being reunited with caregiver
How many types of attachment did Ainsworth find?
3 types
What is type A attachment?
Insecure- avoidant
What are key features of type A attachment?
Insecure- avoidant Stranger anxiety: low Separation anxiety: low Reunions behaviour: negative Babies avoid social intraction They are willing to explore surroundimgs but have high levels of anxiousness
How many babies fell into type A attachment?
22%
What is type B attachment?
Secure
What are key features of type B attachment?
Secure
Stranger anxiety: mild
Separation anxiety: mild
Reunions behaviour: positive
Babies use mothers as a safe base and are happy to explore when shes present
Settled fairly quickly back into play when mother returns
How many babies fell into type B attachment?
66%
What is type C attachment?
Inscure- resistant
What are key features of type C attachment?
Stranger anxiety: high
Separation anxiety: high
Reunions behaviour: negative
Not easily comforted when mother returned- they appared to be angry and rejected her attempts to comfort them
How many babies fell into type C attachemnt?
12%
What is a strength of Ainsworth’s strange situation?
Reliability
Good reliability as the ‘strange situation’ was repeated by Main, Kaplain and Cassidy in 1985
They tested babies at 18 months then again at 6 years old
The results showed that 100% of the secure babies were still classified as secure
75% of the avoidant babies still fell into the same category
Test- retest reliability and confirmed consistency over time
What is a strength of Ainsworth’s strange situation?
Influential
Hugely influential study worldwide for measuring attachment
What is a limitation of Ainsworth’s strange situation?
Attachment to mother
The study only identifies the babies attachment to the mother
The child may have a different type of attachment to others
Lacks validity as its not measuring a general attachment style, rather one specifically with the mother
What is a limitation of Ainsworth’s strange situation?
Circumstances
Research shows the same child may show different attachment behaviours if the circumstances change
E.g. Securely attached child may become increasingly insecurely attached of mother becomes ill
What is a limitation of Ainsworth’s strange situation?
Lacks generalisability
The sample is biased as it used 100 middle class American families Hard to generalise findings outside this culture and demographic Doesn't study cultural variations, which Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg later found were present
What is a limitation of Ainsworth’s strange situation?
Lab study
The lab study meant it took place in an artificial environment so lacks ecological validity
What is an individualistic culture?
One which emphasises personal gain, independence and achievement
At the expense of group goals
Results in a strong sense of individuality
What are examples of individualistic cultures?
North America, Germany and the UK
People often leave home to get a degree and job in a field they (as an individual) are interested in
What is a collectivist culture?
One which emphasis family and work goals above individual desires
High degree of interdependence between people
What are examples of collectivist cultures?
Japan, China and Israel
Family run shops often from Asian backgrounds
What did Bowlby propose about cultural variations in attachment?
Bowlby’s theory proposed that attachment is evolved to protect the infant and enhance survival
If attachment is biological than it should be the same in all cultures
What is a meta- analysis?
Statistical analysis
Combines the results of multiple studies all addressing the same question
To serif there is a correlation
Who did the study into cultural variations in attachment?
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg
When was the study into cultural variations in attachment?
1988
What was the aim of the study into cultural variations in attachment?
To investigate if attachment types (secure and insecure) are universal across al cultures or culturally specific
What type of analysis was used in the study into cultural variations in attachment?
Meta- analysis
How many countries were studied in the study into cultural variations in attachment?
8
How many studies were carried out in the study into cultural variations in attachment?
32
How many babies were used in the study into cultural variations in attachment?
2,000
Who were the participants in the study into cultural variations in attachment?
2,000 babies from 8 countries
What was the procedure of the study into cultural variations in attachment?
Ainsworth’s ‘strange situation’ procedure was used to classify the babies between attachment Type A, B or C
What were the findings of the study into cultural variations in attachment?
Differences were very small between cultures
Secure attachments (type B) were the most common in all cultures surveyed
Avoidant attachments (type A) were most commonly found in west Germany than any other Western culture
Differences within cultures included 3 studies carried out in West Germany showing very different findings
In 2 Japanese studies, 1 had no type A babies whereas the second had around 20%
The differences within cultures was 1.5 times larger than between cultures
This suggests its an over simplification to assume all children are bought up in the exact same way in a particular country or culture
Were differences bigger within or between cultures in the study into cultural variations in attachment?
Within
1.5 times larger than between cultures
What was the most popular attachment type in the study into cultural variations in attachment?
Secure attachments
Type B
Where were avoidant attachments (type A) most commonly found in Western cultures in the study into cultural variations in attachment?
West Germany
What were the findings of the results in Japan in the study into cultural variations in attachment?
In 2 Japanese studies, 1 had no type A babies whereas the second had around 20%
What was a strength of the study into cultural variations in attachment?
Sample size
The large sample size of 2,000 babies from 8 different countries in 32 studies means the results can be generalised to the wider population
Meta- analysis
No cultural bias
What was a limitation of the study into cultural variations in attachment?
Lacks generalisability
18/32 studies were carried out in America which reduces the ability to generalise and shows possible cultural bias
What was a limitation of the study into cultural variations in attachment?
Imposed etic
Ainsworths strange situation was develop in America so may not be suitable for use in other cultures
This is called imposed etic, where other countries may be judged inaccurately by American standards
What was a limitation of the study into cultural variations in attachment?
Many studies carried out in _ countries
27/32 studies were carried out on individualistic cultures so not representative of all cultures (collectivist)
What is Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?
Bowlby proposed that if a child experiences a loss of emotional care that is normally provided by a caregiver during the critical period, then they would experience long- term consequences
How many strands were there to Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation?
There are 3 important strands
Explain the value of maternal care in reference to Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
Its not enough to make sure a child is well fed, safe and warm
Children need a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with their mother or mother- substitute figure
This is needed for normal mental health
In reference to Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation, it is not enough to ensure a child is _, _ and _
Well fed, safe and warm
In reference to Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation, children need a _, _ and _ relationship with their mother
Warm, intimate and continuous
Explain the critical period in reference to Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
Separation and deprivation will only have this affect if it occurs before the age of 2 1/2 years (critical period)
There is a risk of up to 5 years old
Explain the long- term consequences in reference to Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation
Long- term consequences of maternal deprivation are emotional issues and possible mental health problems, such as depression
Who conducted the 44 juvenile thieves study?
Bowlby
What was the aim of the 44 juvenile thieves study?
To investigate whether a lack of continuous care during the critical period of a Childs life leads to emotional maladjustment
What is emotional maladjustment?
Unable to react successfully and satisfactorily to the emotional demand of ones environment
Who were the participants in the 44 juvenile thieves study?
88 emotionally maladjusted children who attended Bowlby’s London clinic
How many participants had been caught stealing in the 44 juvenile thieves study?
44… duh!
What did Bowlby propose some of the 44 thieves were in the 44 juvenile thieves study?
A_ p_
Affectionless psychopaths
What are affcetionless psychopaths according to Bowlby?
People who failed to show empathy, guilt or shame
These characteristics allowed them to steal from others
What 3 characteristics did Bowlby propose made someone an affectionless psychopath?
No empathy, guilt or shame
How many children has affectionless psychopath characteristics in the 44 juvenile thieves study?
14
What was the procedure of the 44 juvenile thieves study?
Bowlby analysed the case histories of 88 emotional maladjusted children who attended his London clinic
What were the findings of the 44 juvenile thieves study?
86% (12) of the 14 affectionless psychopaths had experienced frequent early separations with their mothers
These early separations include the child being placed in foster homes or hospitals with little or no family visits
Supports the maternal deprivation theory
How many/ what % of the children were affcetionless psychopaths in the 44 juvenile thieves study?
86%
12 children
What were the ‘early separations’ in the 44 juvenile thieves study?
The child being placed in foster homes or hospitals with little or no family visits
What theory does the 44 juvenile thieves study support?
The maternal deprivation theory
What is a strength of the 44 juvenile thieves study?
Real- life applications
Huge impact on views surrounding the importance of childrearing
Led to real- life applications such as how children were treated in hospitals in the 1950s
Previously, infants were left in hospital with little or no family visits but now parents are encouraged to visit as much as possible
What is a limitation of the 44 juvenile thieves study?
Bowlby gained information from…
Bowlby gained information from patient histories from his own clinic
Could be investigator bias as Bowlby would have interpreted the evidence himself
May have pre- conceived opinions on the children which would affect the validity of the results
What is a limitation of the 44 juvenile thieves study?
Small sample
The study used a small sample of only 88 participants, and of these only 44 were investigated in the findings
The study cannot be generalised to the wider population as it has an age and cultural bias
What is a limitation of the 44 juvenile thieves study?
The term _ is unclear
The term deprivation is unclear
People often think thus refers to physical separation, but emotional separation may be the actual cause
E.g. If a mother had severe depression, she may be physically preset but not provide emotional care
