Aspects in Breadth p.3 Flashcards
Changes in organising the military, and changes in weaponry and the role of the people c.1790-1918
When was the McNeill-Tulloch Report?
1855
What were the Duke of York’s main reforms?
- ended the worst excesses of the purchase system
- established a military college to improve the professionalism of the future Officer class
- created light infantry regiments
When did the Duke of York reform the army and why?
Between 1795-1815, due to the Army’s poor performance in 1793-4
What did the McNeill-Tulloch Report criticise?
The army’s high command and the Commissariat Officers
In what year was the Commissariat reformed (due to the McNeill-Tulloch Report)?
1858
When were Cardwell’s Army Reforms?
1868-1874
What was Cardwell’s government role from 1868-74?
Secretary of State for War
What two events had shown that the army was inefficient before Cardwell’s reforms?
The Crimean War 1853-6
The Indian Mutiny 1857
What were 3 of Cardwell’s reforms?
- shorter enlistments (of 6 years, then joined reserves)
- abolished the system of purchasing commissions
- split the country into 66 districts each providing 1 territorial and 1 overseas battalions, as well as 2 militia battalions
What were the effects of Cardwell’s 3 main reforms?
- army lost more men than it gained through shorter enlistments, army still not a desirable job due to poor pay and flogging
- Officer corps kept the same social composition despite ending of commission purchase
- the constant need for men overseas pressured the battalions at home
When did Haldane’s reforms take place?
1905-1912
What war prompted demands for reform before Haldane?
the Boer War
What country was seen as a potential threat by around 1905?
Germany
How many men were in Haldane’s expeditionary force?
150,000
What was Haldane’s territorial force to be made up of?
Volunteers, militia and yeomanry
How many men joined the territorial force by 1913, after it was launched in 1907?
over 200,000
What did Haldane reorganise into Officer Training Corps?
Existing military corps in schools and universities
How many men were enrolled in Haldane’s OTCs (Officer Training Corps) by 1914?
20,000 schoolboys
5000 undergraduates
What impact did Haldane’s reforms have?
In 1914 the BEF mobilised quickly and performed well in the first part of the war
By mid-1914 how many divisions prepared for war did Britain have - compared to Germany and France?
Britain had 6 divisions prepared
Germany had 84
France had 66
General Haig and Wilson’s military reforms of 1914?
Haig - looked to improve preparedness by holding regular large-scale manoeuvres
Wilson - formulated mobilisation plans, preparing railway and shipping timetables and arrangements
By what number were warships reduced by between 1814-1818?
From 713 to 121
When was the screw propellor developed?
the late 1830s
When was the first steam battleship with a propellor launched?
1849
What was the name of the first steam battleship with a propellor?
the HMS Agamemnon
In what year was the Duke of Wellington the world’s most powerful warship?
1853
What role did Admiral Graham hold from 1830-1834?
First lord of the Admiralty
What two bodies did Graham amalgamate?
the Naval Board and the Admiralty
What did the merging of the Admiralty and Naval Board do?
It reduced nepotism, bribery and corruption
What did Graham require all crews to be skilled in, with the HMS Excellence commissioned for this reason?
Gunnery
What system did Graham end?
the system of automatic promotions
How many years did Graham institute an Officer to serve before he could become a Commander?
2 years
What was brought under naval control by Admiral Graham?
All aspects of supplying the navy, which had previously been done by civilian boards (the Naval Office and Victualling Board)
How did all ships change in the late 19th century?
From wood/sails to iron/steam
What was Britain’s policy to remain the most powerful navy instituted in the 1889?
To keep up with the strength of the 2 next most powerful navies combined
When did Germany pass a Navy Law which would double the size of its navy?
1898
In what years was Admiral John Fisher First Sea Lord?
1904-1909
When did the Selbourne Scheme become implemented?
What role did Fisher hold when he introduced it and in what years did he hold that role?
Fisher introduced the Selbourne Scheme when he was Second Naval Lord (1902-3).
The scheme began in 1904
What was the Selbourne Scheme?
The Selbourne Scheme meant that Officers would be trained in common at first, and could later specialise in engineering, navigation or gunnery. As they reached a higher rank they would all be eligible to command ships and become Admiral.
What were the aims and effects of Fisher’s Selbourne scheme 1904?
For officers to be trained in common - aiming to close the class gap in the navy and promote friendly relations/ trust between Junior and Senior Officers. Also aimed to make the navy more meritocratic since all Officers would be eligible for command and for Admiral-ship.
Who’s policy was for all navy manoeuvres to be practiced full speed?
Admiral Fisher
What did Fisher introduce as a new motto for Officers?
‘think and act for yourself’
(as opposed to waiting for orders)
In what year did Britain first build submarines?
1902
What was one reason for Fisher to advocate for the building of submarines?
they were 25x cheaper to build than boats
How many obsolete warships did Fisher retire/ put in the reserves?
Fisher retired 90 obsolete warships and put 64 into reserve
What type of engine did Fisher advocate for?
oil-fuelled, rather than coal-fuelled
What two types of ship did Fisher advocate for the building of?
Battlecruisers
‘all big-gun’ warships
What was the first battlecruiser?
When did it enter service?
HMS Invincible
1908
What was the first ‘all big-gun’ warship?
When did it enter service?
HMS Dreadnought
1906
What guns did the HMS Dreadnought have?
it had ten 12-inch guns
From 1873 onwards, how many men did the Navy usually have?
120,000
What was the Impressment Service’s job?
To round up men in ports, aged 15-55, and impress them into serving in the navy.
The men were often crooks or drunkards that were coerced
Who could press merchant seamen into serving in the Royal Navy?
Captains
What percentage of the Navy was made up of pressed men by 1805?
50%
What was the Quota System?
Each country of the empire was required to supply a certain number of volunteers to it’s navy. To meet these quotas, countries would often give criminals the option of volunteering for the navy.
When was impressment abandoned? (though still legal)
1815, after the Napoleonic Wars
What were 3 negatives of the Army for a soldier?
- poor pay
- high death rates
- harsh discipline
What percentage of Britain’s land forces were militia around the early 19th century?
1/5th
How many militiamen volunteered for regular service between 1807-1812?
74,000
What percentage of the total force was made up by the KGL c.1813?
1/5th
How many Officers were in the army by 1814?
10,000
What were 2 ways to become an Officer in the early 19th century?
- enlist 40 militiamen
- bravery in action
What meant that the army drew more from urban areas by the 1900s?
Demographic changes
- e.g in 1851 37% of all non-commissioned army personnel was Irish, by 1913 this was only 9%
After what year were many ships in the navy decommissioned?
1815
What social factor meant there were enough volunteers during the Crimean and Boer Wars?
patriotic sentiment
What men made up Kitcheners new armies in 1914?
Volunteers
During WW1, when was conscription introduced?
December 1915
In August and September 1914, how many new recruits joined the Army?
761,000
How many ‘pals battalions’ were there by October 1914?
(the idea having been introduced in August)
50
What was the idea behind ‘pals’ regiments?
Who came up with it?
What areas were specifically targeted?
Men were more likely to sign up if they were reassured to be with their friends
Introduced by the Director of Recruiting
Northern industrial towns
Which 3 areas produced 250 battalions for the ‘new armies’ combined?
Lancashire, Yorkshire and Scotland
How many battalions for the ‘new armies’ did Devon, Dorset, Somerset and Cornwall produce combined?
11
Who threatened to resign if conscription didn’t go through in December 1915?
Lloyd George
When was the first Military Service Act passed through?
January 1916
When was the second Military Service Act passed?
May 1916
Who was liable to be conscripted?
unmarried men and widowers 18-41
Who did the first Military Service Act exempt from conscription in January 1916? (4)
- the unfit
- sole supporters of dependents
- conscientious objectors
- men doing essential war work
Who did the second Military Service Act expand conscription to include in May 1916?
Married men as well as single
In the first 6 months of conscription was the average monthly enlistment higher or lower than under the voluntary system?
Lower
What is a carronade? (used in the 1790s –>)
A short, rotatable cannon which was good for targeting enemy’s upper decks
How did the way cannons were fired change in the 1790s?
Went from a ‘slowmatch’ to a ‘gunlock’.
The gunlock allowed the gun captain to stand back from the cannon, aim, then pull a lanyard to fire.
What did the switch from ‘slowmatches’ to ‘gunlocks’ do for the navy?
Improved the speed and accuracy of broadsides
How quickly could the Royal Navy perform a broadside in battle?
1.5 minutes (quicker than most enemies)
How many guns did ships-of-the-line carry?
70
How many guns did Frigates carry?
28-36
What gun did most British soldiers use during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars?
Brown Bess Musket
What gun did Light Infantrymen carry during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars?
Baker rifle
What two new projectiles were devised during the period of the French Wars?
Shrapnel Shells
Congreve Rockets
In what year did William Congreve develop rockets?
1806
What were William Congreve’s rockets based on?
Rockets the Indians had used against the East India Company in the 1790s
What was the range of Congreve’s rockets?
2700 m
Why were Congreve’s rockets rarely used?
they weren’t very accurate
Who designed a shell full of musket balls which would explode in front of/ above it’s target?
What was the range of this weapon?
Major Shrapnel
700 yard range
What did William Armstrong develop?
A breech-loading gun which was rifled
When was Armstrong’s new artillery first introduced to the army?
1859-60
When did the Army go back to purchasing muzzle-loading guns?
Why?
1863
Armstrong’s artillery was not working well with inexperienced crews
How long after being abandoned was Armstrong’s artillery not used for?
17 years
Why were British weapons in the Crimea better than Russian ones?
They used rifled muskets
When did the Vickers machine gun enter service?
1912
How many rounds per minute could a Vickers machine gun fire?
500
What were Vickers machine guns reputed for?
their reliability
When were tanks first used by the British?
In September 1916 at the Somme
How successful was the use of tanks at the Somme in September 1916?
They were mechanically unreliable but had forced through German lines at first.
Overall they were successful enough to have more ordered
What were tanks further developed to do?
To cross mud and craters in no-mans-land
Did tanks have a big impact on WW1?
No. They never made a decisive breakthrough
What were 3 major weaponry developments of WW1?
- phosgene/ white star gas
- fuze 106 and specialised shells
- better aeroplanes
What was the most decisive weapon of WW1?
Artillery
How did planes help the war effort?
- Having more (and better) planes allowed the British to perform aerial photography and surveying which was a huge help for artillery
What were the main 4 ways to finance war between 1790-1918?
- taxation
- government bonds
- consols (bonds with no end date)
- war loans
When was the first income tax introduced?
1799
How much money had income tax raised by 1815?
£155 million
How many new goods and services were taxed during the French Wars?
21
How much did taxes per year increase by between 1793-1815?
£12 million per year more (starting at £18million per year)
Why was financing the Crimean War not a huge issue?
the war was short and had a limited scope
How much of the cost of the Crimean War was met by borrowing?
1/2
How much did the Boer War cost?
£217 million
What 2 new taxes were used to fund the Boer war?
- tax on refined sugar
- tax on exported coal
What type of tax was increased during the Boer War?
Income tax
What covered most of the cost of the Boer War?
Bonds and Consols
How much of the cost of the Boer War was met by taxation?
1/3rd
What was the government’s first way to raise money for WW1?
borrowing
When was a war budget introduced for WW1?
September 1915
What was EPD?
Excess Profits Duty
- tax on any war industry whose profits had increased since pre-war
How much was EPD at first? What percentage did it change to in 1917?
EPD was 50% then 80%
What were 3 ways of raising taxes during WW1?
- raised income tax
- raised supertax
- high duties on luxury items
How much did the National Debt increase by during WW1?
Why was this?
£625 million - £7.809 billion
due to public borrowing
How much of WW1 expenditure was met by public borrowing?
nearly 1/3rd
How much did Britain loan to the allies?
How much was loaned to the USA additionally?
£1825 million to allies
£1000 to US
What were two impacts of public reaction to war in the 19th/ early 20th century?
- response to Crimean War led to new PM in 1855
- uproar over concentration camps in the Boer War changed policy in 1901
How did camp followers make money?
- selling alcohol / tobacco
- selling washing and prostitution services
Who were camp followers?
Wives and children of military men who would follow them rather than live in a workhouse
Who set up volunteer units and gave basic training from the 1860s?
Wealthy private citizens
DORA stands for
Defence of the Realm Act
When was the Defence of the Realm Act passed?
August 1914
What did the DORA do?
Gave the government the power to rule by decree
When was the Munitions of War Act passed and what did it entail? (3)
The Munitions of War Act passed in July 1915
The Munitions Ministry could declare any essential plant as a ‘controlled establishment’ meaning that
1 - strikes were banned,
2 - absentees fined,
3 - leavers had to attain a ‘leaving certificate’ in order to move jobs.
When did David Lloyd George become Prime Minister?
December 1916
How many new ministries did Lloyd George create?
12
How much did female employment in munitions production rise by between 1914 to 1918?
From 82,859 to 947,000
How many women started working at government departments during WW1?
200,000
How many women began doing clerical work in private offices during WW1?
500,000
By how much did the number of female transport workers increase over the course of WW1?
18,200-117,200
(just say 100,000 more)
How much did the percentage of women doing waged work rise by during the war?
22.5%
What 5 main ways did women serve in the military during WW1?
1 - WRNS (navy)
2 - WAAC (army)
3 - WRAF (air force)
4 - drivers, typists, clerks and cooks
5 - nurses or orderlies
