Ap Psychology end of the Year Test Flashcards
Wilhelm Wundt
Considered the father of psychology
psychophysics lab in Germany
structuralism
Edward Titchner (introspection)
Structuralism
Structure of the brain
“atoms of the mind”
William James
Functionalism, ideas based on Charles Darwin, adaptation
John Locke
Tabula Rasa
Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalytic
Psychoanalytic theory
Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung
Applied research
Applying knowledge collected through basic research
Basic research
Research to collect data
Hypothesis
Testable question
Dependent variable
Outcome
Independent variable
Variable that is manipulated
Confound variable
A factor that could accidentally affect the dependent variable
Theory
Something that has yet to be proven
Operational definition
Descriptive measure, replicate research
Validity vs reliability
Validity: credibility (internal- does it measure what it is supposed to, external- generalized)
Reliability: repeatability
Sampling
A group of people used to represent a population
Population
Group of people
Representative sample
A sample that is representative of a population
Generalizable
Random sample
Randomly picking people to represent a population
Random assignment
Randomly assigning to control or experimental groups
Control Group
a group to compare the experimental group to
No independent variable
Experimenter bias
Experimenter suggest something that affects the outcome of the experiment
Single – blind procedure
Only the subject doesn’t know which is the placebo
Double – blind procedure
Both the experimenter and subject don’t know which group has the placebo
Hawthorne effect
People act differently when they know they are being watched
Naturalistic observation
Positive correlation
Muscle size and exercise
The chart of a positive correlation would be going from the bottom left-hand corner to the top right-hand corner
Negative correlation
Smoking and health
The chart of a negative correlation would start in the upper left-hand corner and go down to the bottom right-hand corner
No correlation
Random points scattered all over the graph
Pearson’s r
-1 to +1
Survey
Series of questions
Problems: People lie, vocabulary in questions can affect outcome
Naturalistic observation
Observation of the subject in their natural environment
Case study
In-depth study of one person over a long period of time
Case study
An in-depth analysis of a person, group or phenomenon
Mean
Average
Median
Middle
Mode
Appears the most
Range
Highest - lowest
Standard deviation
How much they vary
Difference between the number and the mean
Statistically significant
If the results did not occur by chance
P
Z score
Also known as a standard score
Where a score lies in relation to the populations mean
Agonist
Mimics and excites neuron
Heroin
Antagonist
Blocks and inhibits neuron
Botox
Central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
Autonomic and somatic
Myelin sheath
Covers axon, speeds neural impulse
Axon
Passes messages away from cell body to other neurons
Sensory neurons (afferent)
Sensory
Afferent
Motor
Efferent
Interneuron
Found in central nervous system
Motor neurons(efferent)
S
A
M
E
Neurotransmitter
A chemical messenger that carries signals between neurons and other cells in the body.
neurotransmitter is released from the axon terminal after an action potential has reached the synapse.
Somatic nervous system
Voluntary control of body movements
Afferent and efferent neurons
Autonomic nervous system
Involuntary and unconscious actions
Divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Parasympathetic nervous system
Rest and digest
Sympathetic nervous system
Fight or flight
Pituitary gland
Hormone control center, controlled by the hypothalamus
EEG
Sleep studies, brainwave activity
PET
Injected with glucose, determines function
MRI
Magnets, determines brain structure
fMRI
Combines MRI and PET
Measures brain activity by blood flow
Medulla
Breathing and heart rate
Reticular formation
Located in the brainstem, consciousness, keeps cortex alert and attentive
Thalamus
Signal switch board
Pons
Sleep
Cerebellum
Balance and movement
Limbic system
Middle of the brain
Adrenaline, emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, olfaction
Amygdala
Emotions, in limbic system
Hypothalamus
Hunger, thirst, fornication
Hippo campus
Memory
Temporal lobe
Hearing, auditory cortex
Occipital lobe
Sight, visual cortex
Parietal lobe
Sensation, sensory cortex
Frontal lobe
Decision-making, contains prefrontal and motor cortex
Phineas Gage
First case study
Brokas area
Speaking
Damage=Broken speech
Wernickes area
Comprehension
Plasticity
Brain damage, other parts of brain compensate
Split brain
Corpus callosum was cut in epileptic patients
Corpus callosum
Combines two halves of brain
Left Hemisphere
Logic, math, language, Reading, writing, analysis
Right hemisphere
Personality, creativity, intuition, music, art, spatial abilities
Sensory cortex
Located in the parietal lobe, deals with sensory information such as pain
Psychological perspectives
- biological – hormones, drugs, neurotransmitters and brain structures influencing body and behaviors
- Cognitive- behavior is influenced by how a person thinks and remembers
- Humanistic – self actualization, full potential
- Behavioral – (John B Watson, Ivan Pavlov, BF Skinner) learn observable responses and consequences
- Psychoanalytic – behavior from unconscious drives and conflicts
- Sociocultural- how behavior and thinking vary across cultures
- Evolutionary – (Darwin, James) natural selection, perpetuation of genes
- Developmental – study of people from womb to tomb
Motor cortex
Frontal lobe
Control of voluntary movements
Hindbrain
Brain stem
Forebrain
The lobes
Midbrain
Vision, hearing, motor control, sleep, arousal, temperature
Refractory period
Response is slowed due the previous stimulus being processed
Threshold
Positive and negative polarization of potassium and sodium ions (salty banana)
All or none
Reaction of nerve will be the same regardless of the strength of the stimulus
Reuptake
Neurons take back the chemicals that were not taken by the next neuron
Acetylcholine
Enables muscle action, learning and memory
Not enough: Alzheimer’s disease
Too much: seizures
Dopamine
Movement, learning, attention and emotion
Not enough: Parkinson’s
Too much: schizophrenia
Endorphins
Body’s natural painkillers
Serotonin
Mood, hunger, sleep and arousal
Not enough: depression
Too much: mania
Norepinephrine
Helps control alertness and arousal
Not enough: can depressed mood
Too much:
Temperament
Temperament is to baby as personality is to adult
Heritability
Likelyhood of getting a trait from either parent
Nature VS nurture
Biology VS environmental
FAS
Fetal alcohol syndrome
Teratogens
Anything that can harm a Zygote, embryo, fetus
Newborn reflexes
Rooting reflex: touch and infants cheek and they will turn toward your finger
Moro reflex: baby arches back when scared
Babinski reflex: touch a baby’s foot and they will curl their toes
Sucking reflex
Grasping reflex
Crystallized intelligence
Accumulated knowledge, get stronger with age
Fluid intelligence
Creativity and being able to think quickly, younger
Harry Harlow
Contact comfort
Mary Ainsworth
Attachment study
Secure attachment
Explorative, happy – mom leaves = baby cries, mom returns = baby stops crying
Avoidant attachment
A form of insecure attachment
In different
Anxious attachment
A type of insecure attachment
Baby does not stop crying when mother returns
Authoritarian
Strict and does not involve communication
Permissive
Give into all child’s desires
Authoritative
Considered to be the best type of parenting
Involves communication
Eric Erickson
Eight stages of psychosocial development
each stage has a crisis
Trust vs mistrust
Infancy
Birth to one year
If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust
Autonomy VS shame and doubt
Toddler hood
1 to 3 years
Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities
Initiative VS guilt
Preschool
3 to 6 years
Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent
Industry VS inferiority
Elementary school
Six years to puberty
Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
Identity vs role confusion
Adolescence
Teen years into 20s
Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing rolls and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
Intimacy vs isolation
Young adulthood
20s to early 40s
Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel isolated
Generativity VS stagnation
Middle adulthood
40s to 60s
In middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose
Integrity VS despair
Late adulthood
Late 60s and up
Reflecting on his or her life, and older adults may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
Kübler-Ross
Stages of grief
DABDA
Denial, anger, bargain, depression, acceptance
Jean Piaget
Cognitive development
Sensorimotor – (0-2) habituation, object permanence
Preoperational – (2-6) egocentrism, mirror neurons, animism
Concrete operational – (6-11) conservation
Formal operational - (11-adulthood) abstract thinking
Kohlberg
Carol Gilligan thought he was sexist
Preconventional- (1) value external events, punishment avoidance
Conventional – (2) preforming right roles, obedience because of norms, rules or laws
Postconventional- (3) shared standards, rights and duties, seeking past a written law or rules
Top – down processing
Fast, processing based on prior knowledge, whole before individual
Bottom – up processing
Slow, no prior knowledge, individual before whole
Gate control theory
Spinal cord contains a neurological gate that can either allow or block pain signals to the brain
Just noticeable difference (JND)
Also known as difference threshold
Minimum difference in stimulation that a person can detect 50% of the time
Signal detection theory (SDT)
The ability to differentiate between different stimulations
Olfaction
Smell
Cocktail party effect
Picking out one sound out of many
Retinal disparity
(Binocular cues) difference between two eyes – 3D
Transduction
Light being made into neural impulses
Retina
Transduction occurs
Multilayered tissue on the eyeballs sensitive inner surface
Cornea
Transparent lens in front of the eye
Begins refraction (bending the light)
Lens
Accommodates
Iris
Colored portion
Dilation
Regulates amount of light entering the pupil
Pupil
Black part through which light passes
Blind spot
(Optic disk)
No rods or cones
Retina becomes optic nerve
Optic nerve
Carries nerve impulse to thalamus > occipital lobe
Fovea, bipolar cells, ganglion c Los, form optic nerve, thalamus, occipital lobe
Rods
Black and white
Cones
Color
Fovea
Center of retina
Focus
Made of cones
Feature detectors
(Hubel and Wiesel)
Attached electrodes to a cats occipital lobe
Detect different things like edges and shape
Parallel processing
The ability do multiple things at once
Young-Helmhoptz Theory
Cones see in red, blue, green
Helps explain blindness
Opponent process theory
Opponent cells get stimulations after exposure to opposite colors
Afterimage
Image continues to appear even after the image has been removed
Visual cliff
Test given to infants to see if they have developed depth perception
Hearing intensity
Amplitude
Frequency
High = blue Low = red
Place theory
The place in the cochlea where hairs are situated determines pitch
Frequency theory
The number of times per second the hair cells are stimulated determines pitch
Outer ear
Protection
Transforms sound into vibration
Ear canal
Connects outer ear to eardrum
Amplifies sound waves
Eardrum
Separated outer and middle ear
Middle ear
Perceives sound waves
Hammer/Anvil/Stirrup
Ossicles
Hammer: pass vibrations from eardrum
Anvil: pass vibrations to stirrup
Stirrup: pass vibrations to cochlea
Oval window
?
Cochlea
Coiled, fluid filled tunnel
Place which sound triggers nerve impulses
Auditory nerve
Passes electrical impulses to brain
Sensory deprivation
Deliberate reduction/removal of stimuli from one or more of the senses
Sensory adaptation
Changes to sensitivity of sensory receptors
Vestibular sense
Balance
Perceptual set
Person sees or preview something based on prior experience
Gestalt
Mind tends to view whole and patterns instead of bits and pieces
Proximity
The grouping of items that are close together
Similarity
Grouping items that look alike
Continuity
Principle that we organize stimuli into smooth, continuous patterns
Closure
Principle that we fill in gaps to create a complete, while object
Constancy
Ability to recognize that an object didn’t change even if other stimuli did change
Meta cognition
Thinking about thinking
Consciousness
Awareness of ourselves and surroundings
Circadian rhythm
Bodies 24 hour cycle
Non-conscious level
Bodies processes such as breathing
Preconscious level
Information you are not thinking about but is in long-term memory
Subconscious level
Information we are not completely aware of
behavior suggests there are there
Unconscious level
ID
Unacceptable urges
Sleep cycle
90 minutes, five stages
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep, dreams, paradoxical, last stage
Stage one
Alpha waves
End=theta
feeling of falling
Stage two
Theta waves, sleep spindles
Stage three
Delta waves
restores body functionality
75% theta 25% Delta
Stage four
50% theta, 50% delta
Theta waves
Awake but relaxed and drowsy
Alpha waves
Light sleep
Beta waves
EEG
Similar to waking waves
Delta waves
Slow
Sleep spindles
Rapid bursts of activity
Nightmare
Bad dream
REM sleep
Night terror
Physiological response, common in children
Insomnia
Inability to get to, fall or stay asleep
Narcolepsy
Falling asleep randomly, stimulants can help
Sleep apnea
Inability to breath while asleep
Somnambulism
Sleepwalking, stage two
Manifest content
Storyline
Latent content
Meaning
Hypnosis
Openness to suggestion, pain control
Stimulants
Nicotine, cocaine, caffeine
Excite, stimulate central nervous system
Depressants
Depress central nervous system
Alcohol, opiates, tranquilizers/barbiturates
Hallucinogens
Shrooms, ecstasy, marijuana, LSD
Opiates
Type of depressant
Relieve pain
Heroin, morphine
Tolerance
More usage, more it takes to achieve high
Withdrawal
Psychological/physiological response to absence of drug
Pavlov
Dog salivation study
Classical conditioning
No thinking, associations
NS/UCS/UCR/CS/CR
Neutral stimulus Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response
Acquisition
Stage where neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired
Generalization
Tendency to respond to a similar stimuli
Example of this would be a little Albert, Watson
Discrimination
Opposite of generalization
Spontaneous recovery
Random re association
Extinction
De association
James Garcia
The Garcia effect: stimuli + sickness = taste aversion
Operant conditioning
Thinking is involved
Skinner
Rats and pigeons
Reinforcement and punishment
Shaping
Giving reinforcement when I desired behavior is achieved over and over until the overall goal is met
Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
Reinforcement is used to increase a behavior
Positive is giving a good stimulus for desired behavior
Negative is removing an aversive stimulus
An example of negative would be taking medicine to make a headache go away
Positive punishment and negative punishment
Punishment is used to decrease a behavior
Positive is adding an unwanted stimulus
Negative is removing a wanted stimulus
E.C. Tolman
Latent learning, cognitive maps
Primary reinforcers
Biological requirements: survival
Occur naturally, no learning needed
Secondary reinforcers
Used to reinforce primary reinforcers
Money
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Rewarded every single time that organism provides the appropriate response
variable ratio
Slot machines
Fixed ratio
Buy one get one free
Variable interval
Fishing
Fixed interval
Job/paycheck
Social learning
Social behavior is learned primarily through observation and imitation
Bandura
Bobo doll experiment
Aggressiveness is learned
Mirror neurons
Flashbulb memory
Clear memory of an emotionally significant event
Encoding
Committing information to long-term memory
Proactive and retroactive encoding failures
P: proactive
O: old interferes with new
R: retroactive
N: new interferes with old
Ebbinghaus
Serial position of fact, forgetting curve, primacy and recency
Serial position effect
Tendency to remember the first and last pieces of information
Primacy effect
First piece of information
Recency effect
Last piece of information
Mnemonic device
Play on words
Chunking
Splitting up information into bits and pieces
Sensory memory
Initial contact for stimuli
Short term
Loftus
Misinformation effect, videotaped two cars crashing and ask people questions by changing the vocabulary words used
Concept
General category – bird
Prototype
Specific representation – blue bird
Iconic
Visual information/memory
Echoic
Auditory information/memory
Short term memory – STM
7+/-2
Long term memory
LTM
Implicit
Procedural: cerebellum, riding a bike
Explicit
Declarative: hippocampus, semantic memory, information – episodic memory
Anterograde amnesia
Associate A in anterograde and A in after – after the accident
Happens because of damage
No new memories
Retrograde amnesia
Associate retro with old – old memories
Source amnesia
Getting where you saw or acquired the information
Infantile amnesia
No memory from birth to three years of age
New neurons developing
Recall vs recognition
Recall: fill in the blank
Recognition: multiple-choice
Repression
Pushing a memory into the subconscious
Myth
Representative heuristics
Whatever best fits a previously made schema
Availability heuristic
Whatever comes quickest and most frequently to the mind
Functional fixedness
Cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object of earth and its traditional usage
Noam Chomsky
LAD: language accusation device, language comes naturally/we have an innate ability for language
Benjamin Whorf
Linguistic determinism: language before thought
Phoneme
Sound
Morpheme
Prefix/suffix
Semantics
Meaning
Syntax
Order
Over regularization
I go becomes I goed when referring to the past
Babbling stage
Imitating
One-word stage
One word
Two words stage
Two words
Telegraphic stage
Full sentences
Algorithm
Going through every possible outcome
Mental set
Stuck in priming
Insight
Kholer, insight happens in right Temporel lobe, monkeys – incubation study
Monkeys were presented with a tube with a peanut in it and had to try to figure out how to get it out
Braddeleys working model of memory
There is a central executive
Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory
Environmental input Sensory memory Affention Short-term memory Recalled or rehearsed Long-term memory Retrieval
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
physiological – air, food
safety and security – health, job
love and belongingness – family and intimacy
self-esteem – confidence
self actualization - self fulfillment
- transcendence
Monks propose a discrepancy
Masters and Johnson
Sexual response cycle
Homeostasis
Internal stability
Type a personality
Always on the go – heart disease
Type B personality
Mellow
Neurotransmitters involved in stress
Cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine
GAS General adaptation syndrome
Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
Illness is likely to occur in exhaustion
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic: tasks are enjoyable – over justification effect diminishes this
Extrinsic: motivation caused by outside factors – reward and punishment
Bulimia, anorexia
Bulimia: binging and purging
Anorexia: restriction of caloric intake plus excessive exercise
Lateral hypothalamus
Stimulated: hunger
Damaged: no hunger
Ventromedial hypothalamus
Stimulated: stop eating
Damaged: never stop eating
Drive reduction theory
Body tries to maintain homeostasis by creating a drive
Optimum arousal theory
Boredom
James-Lange theory
Physiological first then emotion
Cannon-Bard theory
Experience physiological and emotional response at the same time
Schacter and singer - two factor theory
Physiological response followed by cognitive appraisal which leads to emotion
Paul Eckman
Micro expressions, display rules, gestures differ culturally but facial expressions are universal
Psychotherapy
Therapy where there’s a professional and a help seeking client
Transference
Client transfer feelings they have for someone in their life to therapist
Client centered therapy
Talk therapy
Humanistic/ Carl Rogers
Behavior therapy
Classical and operant conditioning to treat psychological problems
Counter conditioning
Replace bad responses to a stimulus with good ones
Systematic desensitization
Treatment for phobias, fears and aversions
Reduce anxiety through counter conditioning
Meta-analysis
Researchers examine past studies instead of doing new research
Biomedical therapy
Physiological interventions that focus on reduction of symptoms of psychological disorders
Psychopharmacology
Study of drugs used for psychological disorders
Antipsychotics
Manage psychotic symptoms (delusions and hallucinations)
Schizophrenia and bipolar disorder
Antianxiety drugs
Calm people with excessive anxiety
Antidepressant drugs
Depression, anxiety and OCD
