animal coordination and control Flashcards
what is the endocrine system
it is composed of glands which secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the blood stream
where does the blood carry the hormone to produce an effect
a target orgain
compared to the nervous system, do the effects of the endocrine system act slower or fast ? and do they act for longer periods of time or shorter
the effects of the endocrine system are slower and act for longer
what is a hormone
a chemical that is released from a gland in response to a change
where the pituitary gland located
in the brain
why is the pituitary gland called the master gland
it prodcues and secretes many hormones into the blood
what are hormones released in resposne to
changes in body conditions
what do hormones releases act on to stimulate
these hormones released act on other glands to stimulate other hormones to be released to bring about effects that regulate the body
what do the adrenal glands produce and secret
the hormone adrenailine, to prepare the body for flight to fight
what does the pancreas releaser
insulin and glucagon
how does adenaline prepare the body for fight or flight
- binding to the recepts on the cardiac muscle to increase the rate and force of contreaction
- heart rate and blood pressure will go up
- if the heart rate increases, then blood flow increases, so muscles receive more glucose and oxygen for increases respirtation
- adrenaline stimulates the liver to break down stored glycogen to increase the level of blood glucose for cells to use for respiration
what hormones are released by the pituitary gland
ADH TSH LH PRL GH FSH
what is the target organ for ADH
the kidneys
what is the effect of ADH
controls water levels in the boduy
what does ADH stand for
anti diuretic hormone
what does TSH stand for
thyroid stimulating hormone
what does the target organ for TSH
thyroid
what is the effect of TSH
stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine
what does LH staand for
luthensing hormone
what is the target organ for LH
ovaries
what is the effecct of LH
stimulates egg release and progesterone production in ovaries
what does PRL stand for
prolactin
what is the target organ for PRL
the breats
what is the effect of PRL
stimulates breasts to produce milk
what is the effect of GH
stimlates growth and tepair
what is the target organ for GH
all cells in the body
what does GH stand for
growth hormone
what does FSH stand for
follice stimulating hormone
what is the target organ for FSH
the ovaries
what is the effect on FSH
stimulates egg ripening and oestrogen production in ovaries
what is metabolic rate
the rate at which energy is relleasesd into the body
what does thyroxine regulate
metabolic rate, breathing,heart rate and body temperature
what does the thyroid gland produce
the hormone hyroxine
what is the role of negative feedback for thyroxine
keep the amount of thyrozine in blood roughly the same
what does TRH stand for
thyrotropin-releasing hormone
what do the ovaries produce
the hormones oestrigen and preogestgerone
what effect does oestrogen have
causes the lining of the uterus to thicken
what does high levels for oestriogen do
cause the release of another hormone from the pituitary gland which causes the egg to be released
where is oestogen rleased from
the ovaries
what is the role of progestone
maintains the lining of the uterus during the mesntrual cyel
what is the mesntral cycle
the reproductibe cycle in women, it is brought about by hormones
how long does the mnestral cycle last
28 days
what is ovulation
when an egg is released half way through the mestral cycle
whagt day does ovulation normally haoppen
day 14
where are eggs released from
the ovary
where do eggs travel to
the uterus
when does mensturation happens
day 1 of the menstural cyle
what happpens to eggs once fertillised
thewy come embedded in the thick uterus lining
if a women becomes pregant when her lining of the uterus is being maintain, what happens
the progestrone levels that are already high will stay high
what is the pill
oral contraceptive that contains oestrigen to inhibit FSH production, so that no egg develops and matures. after taking a while egg development and release will stop completely
what do the mini pill and injections contain
progestrine
what do high lvels of progestrine in the mini pill and injections do
stimulate cervix to produce a thick musuc, which stops sperm form entering the uterus
what do spermicdal agents do
kill or disable sperm
what are two examples of barriuer methods
condoms and diaphrams
what do implants or skin pathces do
inhubut the maturation and relewase of eggs for a number of months or years
what is the role of the barrier method
prevent sperm from reaching egg
what is the rol of the ccoil or other intraurine devices
prevent the implantation of an embryo
what is steriladation or vasectomy
surgical methods of male and female sterillisations
what are the distadvantages of barrier methods
- need to think ahead before intercorse in order to purchase condoms
- less reliable method of contraception
disadvantage of hormonal methods
- some women sufffer from side effects formtaking hormone
- hormone contraceptive do not protect the couple from sexually transmitted diseases
advantages of hormal methods
- more effective at preventing pregananycy
- no need to think about contraception before a couple have intercourse
advangtages of barrier methods
- can provide protection aganist STI
- easily available and do not need a doctor to prescribe them. useful for people who many not be able to take contraceptive because of the side effects
why do women have to undergo ART fertillity treament
if they find it difficult to get pregnant
what does ART stand for
assited reproductive technology
if a womean has naturally low levels of FSH and LH what therapy can she undergo
clomiphere theraphy
what is clomiphere
a drug which stimulates the release of FSH and LH by the body
what form can clomiphene be taken in
tablet or injectiojn
by taking clomiphe what will happen
she may get pregmant in the normal way
if a women can’t get pregnant after clomifene therapy, what is the next step
IVF treatment
what does IVF involve
- giving a mother FSH and LH to stimulate the maturation fo several eggs
- the eggs are collected from the mother and fertillised by sperm from the father in the laboratory
- fertillised eggs develop into embryos
- at the stage when they ate tiny balls of cells, one or two embryos are inserted into the mothers uterus
what are the negatives of fertillity treatment
- very emotional and physically stressful, sucess rates are not high
- increase the risk of complications in pregnancy and childbirth and may lead to premature or underwieht babies
- can lead to multiple births, which are a risk to both baby and mother
what is homeostasis
the regulation of the internal condions of a cell or organism to maintain optimum conditions for enzyme function and all cell functions in response to internal and external changes
in the human body, what does homeostatsis control
- blood glucose concentration
- body temperature
- water levels
what is human body temp
37 degrees
whatg is the optimum temperature for enzymes to work effectively
37 degrees
what is body temp controled by
the thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalmus in the brain
what does the thermoregulatory system contain
receptors snsitive to the temperature of the blood
what does the skin contain
temperature recepttors adn sends nervous impulses to the thermoregulatory centre
what are the three layers of the skin
epidermis, dermis, faty layer
what haooens when humans get cold
- the skeletal muscles contract rapildy and this causes shivering
- the muscle contractions require enegey form respiration and some of this is released as heat
- the hair erector muscles in the dermis also contract and this raises the hair which trap a layer of air close to the skin which acts an insulator
what happens if body temp is too low
bllod vessl contrsicrs (vaso contrictin) sweating stops and skeletal muscles contract (shiver)
what happens if the body temperare is too high
blood vessel dillates (vaso dilation) and sweat is produced onto the epidermis from the swreat glands in the dermis
what do both vasoconstriction and vasodilation cause
a transfer of energy from the skin to the environment
what is blood glucose concentrated monitored and controlled by
pancreas
whatg happens when blood glucose concentration is toohigh
- the pancrease releases the hormone insulin
- insulin stimulates the movement of glucose form the blood into the cells
- liver and muscle cells convert excess gluose into glycogen for storage
the control of blood glucose concetration is an example of what
negative feedback
what does negative feedback ensure
that the changes are reversed and returned back to the set level
what happens if blood glucose concentration is too low
- pancreases rfelease glucagon
- liver and muscle cells convert glycogen into glucose
- then blood glucose levels return to normal
what is diabetes
a condition thatgg causes a perons blood sugar level to become too high
what does lack of insulin cause
high blood sugar level
what is type 1 diabtes
a disorder in which the pancreases fails to produce enough insulin
what is type 1 diabtes treated with
insuulin injections
what is type 2 diabetes
a disorder where the body cells nno longer respond to the insulin produced by the pancreas
what is a risk factor for type 2 diabtes
obesity
hwo is type 2 diabtes treated
by controlling the carbpophyrate in the diet and by exercise
what can make a person havwe a greater risk fo developing type 2 diabtes
excess weight
what is BMI used for
to calculate whether a perons eight lies within a healthy range
what does BMI stand for
body mass indicator
what is the equation for BMI
mass kg divided by heivgh m^2
what are the limitations to BMI
it simoly shows if a person is carrying too much weight, not whether this is excess fat, muscle or bone
what is considered alongside BMI
waist to hip ratio
what is osmoreguoation
the regulation of water content in the body
what are water, ions and urea lost by
the skin in sweat
where are excess water, ions and urea removed from
the kindeys n the urine
when does water lleave the body
via the lungs through exhalation
what is exhalation
when you breathe out
what is urea
a waste product produced when proteins are broke down
what happens if cells lose or gain too much water by osmosis
they do not function effectively
what are in ions
sodiyuum potassium calcim nitrogen
what structure in the body cells is made from water
cytooplasm
what does hyptonic mean
more dilute than the solution the cells
what is hyoertonic
more concentration solution
what is isotonic
same concentration as solution in the cell
when a red blood cell is placed in hypotonic solutions, what happens
water enters the cell by osmosis and as the volume increases, this puts pressure on the cell membrane and it bursts, this is called lysis
what happens when a red blood cell is placeede in hypertonic solutions
water leaves the cell by osmosis andd the cells shrink and the membrane wrinkles. this is called creation
if the kindyes function properly and keep the blood concentration isotonic, what doesn’t happen in the body
lysis or crenation
what is rhe role of the kidneys
to filter the blood and form urine that is stored in the bladder
where are the kindeys located
in the lower back
what is the name of the outer layer, that each kidney has
cortex
what is the name of the inner layer that each kidney has
the medulla
where is blood filtered
in the nephron
what are the threee main steps in blood filtration
- filtration of glucose, urea, ions and water from the blood
- selective reabsoprtion of all glucose, some ions and some water in the body
- excreation of all urea, excess ions and excess water into the urine
what happens when you have a diet high in protein
the excess proteins are digested into amino acids that are absorbed into the blood. the excesses amino acids are then deminatted in the liver to from ammonia
what does deaminated mean
removal of an amino group from the amino acids
what is ammonia
a very toxic substance
why is ammonia immediately converted to urea for safe excreation from the body in the urine
because it is toxic
what does ADH cause the kidney tubles
to beccome more permable to water
what does increases levels of ADH cause
tje kidney to reabsorb more water
if you have an increased water content of blood (more dilute), what happens
- the pituitary gland stops releasing ADH into the blood
- the kidney tubles are less permeable and reabsobr less water
- this means less concentrated urine is produced
- then normal blood water levels will return back to normal
if you have a decreased water content of blood (more concentration) what will happen
- the pituotary gland releases ADH into the blood
2, kidneyh tubles are more permeable and reabsorb more water - more concentrated urine is produced
- normal blood water levels will return back to normal
what is kidney failture
a medical conditions where the kindeys no longer work
what happens if the kidneys fail
toxins can build up in the blood and the concentration of ions gets out of balance
what are the two treatments for kidneyhh failure
kidney dialusis and kidney transplants
what does kidney dialyusises do
restores the cocnentration of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels and has to carried out in regular intervals
how does a dialysis machien work
- bllood high in urea flows between partially permeable membrane in the opposite direction of the dialysis fluid
- this maintains the concentration graident
- the dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood
- this ensure that glucose and ions are not lost
- urea passes out from the blood into the dialysis fluid
