ALEXANDER II POLITCAL AUTHORITY Flashcards
1. Political authority and the state of Russia
1885
Russia was a vast empire of around 21 million square kilometres ruled by an
autocratic empire (no limits to the ruler’s power) and at its head was an autocratic and unlimited tsar
1. Political authority and the state of Russia
CHURCH
The tsar was the head of the Russian orthodox church regarded as the embodiment of God on earth l
ands of the Russian empire was his property, and the Russian people were his children.
The people were taught to show devotion to their tsar and accept their conditions on earth as the will of God.
1. Political authority and the state of Russia
CHURCH
State and church closely entwined
Over-procurator of the holy synod employed by the tsar to run church affairs and archbishops were subject to tsarist control over churches finances and administration.
1. Political authority and the state of Russia
GOVERNMENT
The tsar’s imperial edicts were the law of the land. He had advisers and ministers, but they were chosen by himself, and no one could do anything without his approval.
Main advisory body =
imperial council (hand-picked by himself to provide expert opinion).
He also relied on provincial nobility for support, who acted as governors of one of the empires 50 provinces or kept law and order on their estates.
1. Political authority and the state of Russia
GOVERNMENT
The civil servants who made up the bureaucracy were paid noble officials selected from a table of ranks which went from level 1 (council of ministers) to level 14 (tax collector). Each had its own uniform, form of address and status, but this bureaucracy was riddled with
corruption and incompetence, orders were passed through in one way, from the central government to town commandants – no way for suggestions to travel upwards.
1. Political authority and the state of Russia
ARMY
The tsar had the world’s largest army of 1.5 million conscripted serfs at his disposal each forced into service for
spending
25 years and forced to live in a military colony.
It absorbed 45% of the governments annual spending.
Higher ranks = nobility.
Army called to fight foreign wars or to put down internal disturbances.
Cossacks – had special social privileges and acted as personal bodyguards to the tsar as well as police reinforcements.
1. Political authority and the state of Russia
POLICE STATE
To maintain the autocracy, Russia had developed into a police state – the third section prevented the freedom of speech, press and travel abroad.
Political meetings and strikes were banned, censorship was strictly enforced by the state.
It had unlimited powers to carry out raids and to arrest and imprison or exile anyone suspected of anti-tsarist behaviour.
1. Political authority and the state of Russia
IMPACT OF CRIMEAN WAR 1853-6
Turks declare war following Nicholas I sent an army into Moldova.
Britain & France join the war as Russia sinks a Turkish sink in the black sea.
PROBLEMS
- Russians took longer to get equipment to the front line than it took French and British to send soldiers from the channel ports.
- Muskets were inferior and there was only 1 between 2 soldiers.
- The navy still used wooden ships while western ships had steam power and were made of metal.
Led to Russian defeats at Balaclava 1854 and Inkermen 1854.
1. Political authority and the state of Russia
IMPACT OF CRIMEAN WAR 1853-6
The fighting revealed Russia’s military and administrative inadequacies. AND LED TO
- Trade disrupted.
- Peasant uprisings escalated.
- Renewed cries from the intelligentsia to close the gap between Russia and the west.
- Treaty of Paris added the final humiliation by preventing Russian warships from using the black sea in times of peace (could not be used as trade ships).
Failure provided the wakeup call Russia needed and alexander II and liberal minded nobles came to power.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
THE EMANCIPATION EDICT, 1861
1858-9 alexander II set off on a tour of the countryside, making pro-emancipation speeches to try win noble support.
Initially applied to
private serfs – state serfs freed in 1866.
Serfs received freedom and an allotment of land while landlords received government compensation.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
Free serfs required to pay redemption payments to the government over 49 years and to remain in a peasant commune (mir) until they have been paid.
what were mirs and volots
Mir responsible for distributing allotments, controlling farming, and paying the peasants taxes.
Volosts established to supervise the mirs and ran their own courts from 1863, replacing the landlord’s jurisdiction over the serfs.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
2-year period of temporary obligation before freedom granted during which allocations were worked out: landlords kept woodlands, meadows, and personal holdings whereas open fields were given to serfs.
Took long to carry out
– 15% remained temporarily obliged until 1881 where abolition was made compulsory.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION
Some peasants (kulaks) did well: bought extra land to produce surplus grain for exports / sold their lands and obtained a passport to leave the mir and raised their living standards by finding work in cities.
Some landowners used the
compensation to get out of debt and made profits through investment in industry.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
problems of emancipation
Land allotments were not fair - increasingly divided as several sons inherited the land and it was shared between them,
mir system traditional - subsistence farming and technical backwardness persisted: only 50% produced surplus in 1878.
The loss of former benefits, restrictions on travel and the burden of the redemption payments made life difficult.
Resentment of kulaks - further violent outbreaks in the countryside.
There were 647 incidents of riot in the 4 months that followed the decree. Noble bankruptcies continued – landowners had to sell or mortgage their land.
Landowners resented their loss of influence - wave of student riots occurred in Moscow and St Petersburg.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
MILITARY REFORMS 1874-5
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- Conscription compulsory for all classes from the age of 21.
- Length of service reduced from 25 to 15 years of active service and 10 years in the reserves.
- Punishments made less severe.
- Military colonies abandoned.
- Better medical care established.
- Modern weaponry introduced.
- New command structure established.
- Military colleges set up provided better training for non-noble officers.
- Literacy improved by mass army education campaigns.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
military reform problems
However:
Problems of supply and leadership continued.
The army struggled to win against turkey (1877-8) and defeated by the Japanese (1905) and Germans (1917).
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
LOCAL GOVERNMENT REFORMS 1864-70
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- Zemtsva (system of elected local council) established at district and provincial level chosen by a system of electoral colleges (individuals vote for others to cast their vote on their behalf) with separate colleges for peasants, church, and nobles – voting arranged in a way that nobles would dominate.
- Given power to improve public services, develop industrial projects and administer poor relief.
- 1870 reform extended into towns – dumas set up.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
local government reform limitations
Powers strictly limited no control over taxes, could be overturned by provincial governors.
Weren’t truly people’s assemblies attracted doctors, lawyers etc who used the meetings as opportunity to debate political issues and criticise the government.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
JUDICIARY REFORMS 1864
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- There had been no jury system, no lawyers, and no examination of witnesses accused considered guilty until proven innocent and judge’s decision was final.
- Equality before law established single system of provincial, national courts where accused were presumed innocent until proven guilty and could employ a lawyer.
- Criminal cases heard before barristers and jury selected from a list of property owners.
- Judges appointed by the tsar and given improved training and pay.
- Local JPs elected every year by zemtsva independent of political control.
- Courts opened to the public and proceedings could be freely reported national trials recorded in a government newspaper.
New system fairer and less corrupt.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
judiciary reforms problems
- Juries sometimes acquitted the guilty because they sympathised with their plight.
- Trial by jury never established in Poland or the Caucasus.
- Ecclesial and military courts excluded from reforms.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
EDUCATION REFORMS 1863-64
Emancipation increased the need for basic literacy.
Under Alexander Golovnin:
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- Universities govern themselves and appoint their own staff.
- Responsibility for schooling transferred from the church to the zemtsva.
- Primary and secondary education extended modern schools established for those who didn’t want traditional gymnasia education. Both could progress to university.
- Schools declared open to all regardless of class and sex.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
education reform results
Educational provision grew remarkably:
Number of primary schools rose from 8000 (1856) to 23000 (1880)
Number of university students grew from 3600 to 10,000.
New independence given to universities increased the number of radical and militant thinkers deemed necessary to reassert government control after 1866.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
CENSORSHIP REFORM 1858-70
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- Initial relaxation of press censorship:
- Restrictions on publishers lifted.
- Foreign publications permitted with government approval.
- Numbers of books published increased from 1020 to 10691 by 1894
However
A growth in critical writing brough a re-tightening of government control in the 1870s.
2 . Political authority and attempts at reform:
OTHER REFORMS
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- Attempt to eliminate corruption in the church period of reaction in the 70s ended all hopes of this.
- Reform of the condition of Jews and ethnic minorities reversed by the 1863 Polish rebellion.
- Economic liberalisation by Von Retuern survived, but at the peasant’s expense.
