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Semester 1- ToB > Alex's ToB Notes Qs > Flashcards

Alex's ToB Notes Qs Flashcards

1
Q

Give the two broad categories of muscle

A

Striated and smooth

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2
Q

Give the two types of striated muscle

A

Cardiac

Skeletal

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3
Q

Describe the layers of a muscle muscle bundle

A

Epimysium
Perimysium
Endomysium

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4
Q

Where are the nuclei found in skeletal muscle?

A

Peripherally

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5
Q

Where are the nuclei found in cardiac muscle?

A

Centrally

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6
Q

What is the gap between cells called in cardiac muscle?

A

Intercalated disks

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7
Q

What formation does cardiac muscle lie in?

A

Diad- one T tubule is associated with two sarcoplasmic reticulums

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8
Q

What formation does skeletal muscle lie in?

A

Triad- one T-tubule is associated with 2 sarcoplasmic reticulums

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9
Q

Where do the muscle filaments lie in smooth muscle?

A

Around the edges

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10
Q

Describe the process of contraction of striated muscle

A
  1. Calcium binds to the troponin complex and moves tropomyosin away from the myosin binding site on the actin filament
  2. The myosin head binds to the actin filament at an acute angle
  3. ATP on the myosin head is hydrolysed to ADP and causes the myosin head to flex
  4. ADP is phosphorylated and the myosin head returns to its normal position, dragging the actin filament with it
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11
Q

Give the 3 types of cartilage

A

Elastic
Hyaline
Fibrocartilage

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12
Q

Where can hyaline cartilage be found?

A

Costal cartilage
Articular cartilage
Template for ossification of bone

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13
Q

Describe the process of endochondrial ossification

A
  1. Arterial supply established in the hyaline cartilage
  2. Primary ossification centre develops in this area as calcification occurs
  3. After birth, secondary ossification centres infiltrate the two poles of the bone and calcification occurs at the poles
  4. After calcification of the external bone, the bones grow from the epiphyseal growth plates
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14
Q

Describe the process of bone growth

A
  1. Hyaline cartilage in the epiphyseal growth plates calcifies and extends into the metaphyses
  2. Below the calcified columns are the zones of reabsorption where the bone is modified by osteoblast and osteoclast activity
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15
Q

What is intramembranous ossification?

A

Thickening of existing cartilage template with no associated lengthening (appositional growth)

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16
Q

Where is intramembranous ossification found?

A

Flat bones

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17
Q

Where is endochondral ossification found?

A

Long bones

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18
Q

Which hormone is responsible for bone growth?

A

Growth hormone

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19
Q

What disease occurs if excessive growth hormone is released after puberty?

A

Acromegaly

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20
Q

How is cartilage formed?

A

Fibroblasts migrate from the periostium to the inner extracellular matrix. They differentiate into chondroblasts and then chondrocytes
This causes growth of cartilage

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21
Q

What is the function of a chondrocyte?

A

Secrete type II collagen and extracellular matrix

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22
Q

Where can elastic cartilage be found?

A

Eustachian tube
Epiglottis
Pinna of the ear

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23
Q

How is elastic cartilage different from hyaline cartilage?

A

Does not undergo calcification

Allows for distention

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24
Q

Where is fibrocartilage found?

A

Joints

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25
What are the two types of structures found in long bones?
Cancellous | Cortical
26
Where can cortical bone be found?
Periphery of long bones
27
What microstructural pattern can be seen in cortical bone?
Osteons- vertical concentric rings
28
What are the canals which run in cortical bone called?
Haversian | Volkmann's
29
Which orientation do Volkmann's canals lie in bone?
Horizontally
30
Which orientation do Haversian canals lie in bone?
Vertical
31
Describe the cutting cone in bone
As osteoclasts bore a hole in bone, osteoblasts lay down new bone directly behind the hole forming a cone shape
32
Describe the process of bone fracture healing
1. Haematoma formation- arteries split and leak blood into the cancellous bone. Phagocytic cells remove dead tissues 2. Soft callus forms from fibrocartilage and hyaline cartilage. Angiogenesis occurs 3. Hard callus forms as hyaline cartilage is ossified in a sleeve formation to connect the two portions of bone 4. Bone remodelling occurs to restore it to its normal shape
33
What is an exocrine gland?
Gland which releases its contents into the surrounding tissue for immediate action
34
What is an endocrine gland?
Gland which releases its contents into the bloodstream
35
Give the two categories of exocrine glands?
Mucous | Serous
36
What occurs in the acinar cells of exocrine glands?
Secretion of substances
37
What occurs in the ductal cells of exocrine glands?
Alter substance | Transport substance
38
Give the 3 methods for excretion of substances by exocrine glands
Apocrine Merocrine Holocrine
39
What is apocrine secretion?
Substance formed in the cell and packaged by the golgi so leaves the cell as a membrane-bound vesicle
40
What is merocrine secretion?
Substance packaged as a vesicle in the cell and then substance released externally to the cell as the membranes fuse
41
What is holocrine secretion?
Cell disintegrates so contents are released into the external environment
42
What is white matter in the spinal cord?
Myelinated axons found at the periphery of the spinal cord
43
What is grey matter in the spinal cord?
Synaptic junctions and cell bodies found in the centre of the spinal cord
44
What is the generalised function of the sympathetic nervous system?
Fight or flight
45
What is the generalised function of the parasympathetic nervous system?
Rest and digest
46
Where can the sympathetic fibres be found?
Thoraco-lumbar region extending from T1 to L2
47
Where can the parasympathetic fibres be found?
Cervical and sacral regions
48
Describe the length of the fibres in the parasympathetic nervous system
Long preganglionic | Short postganglionic
49
Describe the length of the fibres in the sympathetic nervous system
Short preganglionic | Long postganglionic
50
What is the role of an astrocyte?
Maintain BBB
51
What is the role of a Schwann cell?
Myelinate axons in the PNS
52
What is the role of an oligodendrocyte?
Myelinate axons in the CNS
53
What is saltatory conduction?
Impulses jump between Nodes of Ranvier which are areas not surrounded by myelin sheath
54
Describe the layers of a nerve bundle
Epineurium Perineurium Endoneurium
55
Describe how a nerve regenerates if it is servered
Distal portion undergoes wallerian degeneration where macrophages break it down. The endoneurium is preserved The proximal nerve forms a cap to prevent leakage of cell material (chromatolysis)
56
How fast can an axon regenerate?
1-2mm/day in small nerves | 5mm/day in large nerves
57
What is the dermis?
Dense irregular connective tissue where the blood supply, sweat glands, nerves and erector pilli muscles are found
58
Name the 4 layers of the epidermis
Stratum corneum Stratum granulosum Stratum spinosum Stratum basale
59
Which layer of the epidermis does keratinocyte mitosis mainly occur?
Stratum basale
60
Which layer of the epidermis does differentiation of the keratin proteins occur?
Stratum spinosum
61
In which layer of the epidermis do the cells become corneocytes?
Stratum corneum
62
Which cells provide pigment for the skin?
Melanocytes
63
What is the function of a Langerhan cell?
Specialised to present antigens to T lymphocytes. Found in the stratum granulosum
64
What is psoriasis?
Excessive proliferation of cells at the stratum basale
65
What is allergic dermatitis?
Hypersensitivity of the Langerhans cells to a specific antigen causing reddening of the skin
66
What is malignant melanoma?
Cancerous state of the melanocytes and presents with a localised region of hyperpigmentation on the surface of the skin
67
Why is malignant melanoma likely to metastasise?
Sits on the border of two structures so can easily penetrate to underlying tissues
68
What are the functions of conective tissue?
``` Provide substance and form to the body Defend against infection Provide a medium for diffusion Aid in injury repair Attach muscles and bones together ```
69
What is extracellular matrix made up of?
Ground substance- hyalouronic acid and proteoglycan aggregates Fibres- collagen and elastin
70
Give the 3 types of connective tissue structures
Loose Dense irregular Dense regular
71
Give 3 types of specialised connective tissue
Blood Cartilage Adipose tissue
72
Which molecules attach to proteoglycan molecules in extracellular matrix?
GAGs
73
What is the function of a GAG in extracellular matrix?
Negatively charged so attract water to form a hydrated gel
74
Where is type I collagen most commonly found?
Bone Tendons Capsules of organs
75
Where is type II collagen found?
Cartilage
76
Where is type III collagen found?
Supporting structure in lymph nodes
77
Where is type IV collagen found?
Basement membrane
78
Describe the structure of type I collagen
Three alpha chains forming a triple helix | Glycine is the recurring third amino acid in each strand
79
What is osteogenesis imperfecta?
Defective function of type I collagen | Presents with multiple fractures, varus deformity, hearing loss, and blue sclera
80
What is osteoporosis?
Bone density 2.5 standard deviations below the normal
81
What is achondroplasia?
Congenital defect resulting in dwarfism. The calcified columns from the epiphyseal growth plates are not reabsorbed and bone growth is stunted
82
What are rickets and osteomalacia?
Vitamin D deficincy Rickets- children Osteomalacia- adults
83
Give the layers that make up the alimentary tract wall
Mucosa: Epithelium Lamina propria Muscularis mucosae Submucosa Muscularis externa Outer serosa
84
What is found in the lamina propria of the allimentary tract?
Loose connective tissue Blood Lymph Immune cells in Peyer's patches
85
What is the diameter of an erthrocyte?
7.2nm
86
What is the limit of resolution?
Minimum distance at which two separate entities can be distinguished
87
What is the glycocalyx?
Lipoproteins expressed on the surface of the cell to aid communication, adherance to other tissues and regulate uptake
88
Describe the process of fixing a biopsy sample
``` Formaldehyde to cross link proteins Dehydrate with ethanol Add xylene and toluene Embed in wax Stain ```
89
What is the most commonly used stain?
Haematoxylin and Eosin
90
What part of the cell does haematoxylin stain?
Acidic components- nucleus
91
What part of the cell does eosin stain?
Basic components- proteins
92
What colour does haematoxylin stain?
Purple
93
What colour does eosin stain?
Pink
94
What stain is used for acid-fast bacteria?
Ziehl-Neelson stain
95
What stain is used for connective tissue?
Masson's trichrome
96
In what diseases is the Masson's trichrome stain used?
Liver cirrhosis

Semester 1- ToB (17 decks)

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