Addiction- risk factors

Question 1

What are the 5 risk factors we look at

Answer 1

1) personality
2) stress
3) peer groups
4) genetic influences
5) family influences

Question 2

What is inherited which may cause addiction

Answer 2

Genetic vulnerabilities

Question 3

What gene did Comings et al find to be implicated in addiction

Answer 3

A1DRD2

Question 4

What does the A1DRD2 gene do

Answer 4

Reduces the number of dopamine receptors are reduced in someone’s brain, meaning they have to go out and try achieve extra stimulation (hence, drugs and alcohol).

Question 5

What is reward deficiency syndrome

Answer 5

When individuals are less sensitive to rewards and may seek out extra stimulating activities like gambling to compensate

Question 6

How many of the alcohol dependent user participants had the faulty gene
- Comings et al

Answer 6

69%

Question 7

How many of the cocaine dependent user participants had the faulty gene
- Comings et al

Answer 7

51%

Question 8

Evaluation, genes
- Evidence (Shields)

Answer 8

P- There is research to support
E- Using an adoption study, Shields et al (1962) examined the concordance between 42 twin pairs that were reared apart. Only 9 pairs were actually discordant, showing how genetic similarity is a major factor in starting to smoke.
L- support the genetic influence explanation

Question 9

Evaluation, genes
- Evidence (Shah et al)

Answer 9

P- There is more research to support
E- Shah et al (2005) used adults to find strong evidence of genetic transmission in men. Black et al (2006) also found that 1st degree relatives of gambling addicts were much more likely to suffer the same fate as more distant relatives.
L- shows that genes play a role in addiction

Question 10

Evaluation, genes
- Practical applications

Answer 10

P- The explanation has practical application
E- By understanding genes are a vulnerability, we can identify what triggers these genes and get individuals to avoid these triggers.
L- Means that the genetic explanation can be used to help addicts

Question 11

Evaluation, genes
- Issues with concordance rates

Answer 11

P- No genetic explanation can find a 100% concordance rate

E- Therefore, it is likely that the environment plays a role, meaning the genetic explanation has lowered explanatory power. It is also incredibly unlikely that an individual will get addicted to a substance that they have never been exposed to, so the environment clearly does play a part in this.
L- An interactionist explanation may better at explaining

Question 12

What is acute stress

Answer 12

Everyday stress

Question 13

What is chronic stress

Answer 13

Traumatic stress

Question 14

What does the tension-reduction hypothesis state

Answer 14

People may engage in addictive behaviours in an attempt to reduce tension and anxiety

Question 15

Who developed the tension-reduction hypothesis

Answer 15

Cappell and Greeley

Question 16

What has research shown about people exploited to chronic stress

Answer 16

They are more vulnerable to addiction
Especially children who have experienced a parental/child abuse

Question 17

What did Driessen et al find

Answer 17

30% of addicts and 15% of alcoholics also suffered from PTSD

Question 18

According to Driessen et al
__% of addicts and __% of alcoholics also suffered from PTSD

Answer 18

30
15

Question 19

What have researcher said about mere trauma

Answer 19

• Not sufficient enough to lead to addiction
• It’s how you internalise them
• Such major life events may not only increase risk of addiction but also make you readjust your life

Question 20

What did Travolacci find

Answer 20

That not only was perceived stress associated with known risks such as alcohol misuse, but also with new risks such as eating disorders and cyber addiction.

Question 21

Evaluation, stress
- Evidence (Buckley)

Answer 21

P- This is evidence to support the notion that stress and/or personal difficulties are related to substance abuse.

E- For example, buckley found that 47% of patients with schizophrenia have a substance related disorder, we could presume the anxiety and stress from this condition contributed to addiction.

L- This illustrates that stress, and particularly mental health issues clearly relate to addiction

Question 22

Evaluation, stress
-Cause and effect

Answer 22

P- There is a cause and effect issue with STRESS as a risk factor in addiction.

E- Although evidence links stress and addiction, it is largely retrospective research with no before measurements meaning we cannot assume stress CAUSES addiction. Some factors that may mediate the effect of stress and addiction include - personality factors that make you more or less vulnerable, or perhaps access to drugs creates thee stress itself.

L-This means the links between STRESS and ADDICTION is simply correlational at best

Question 23

Evaluation, stress
-Evidence (Travolacci)

Answer 23

P- There is further evidence that stress is linked to addiction from university students.

E- Tavolacci’s et al (2013) research suggested that students who found university to be stressful may develop addictive disorders. They compared highly stressed students with students feeling less stress and found that high perception of stress was related to smoking regularly, alcohol abuse and risk of internet addiction.

L- This suggests that stress and vulnerability to addiction are linked.

Question 24

Evaluation, stress
- Individual differences

Answer 24

P- There are individual differences that need to be taken into account.

E- Stress may create vulnerabilities in some but not all people, and personality traits should be considered negative.

E- For instance - Kobasa 1979 suggested those with ‘hardiness’ can create a protective factor against stress and addiction. Hardiness is when you have high control, commitment and challenge.

L- This means this factor is incomplete as the sole explanation for vulnerabilities to addiction.

Question 24

What 3 personality traits are linked to addiction

Answer 24

1) Extraversion
2) Psychoticism
3) Neuroticism

Question 24

How does extraversion cause addiction

Answer 24

Extraverts are chronically under aroused and as such may engage in addictive behaviours to gain stimulation to raise arousal in the CNS - to create homeostasis

Question 25

How does neuroticism cause addiction

Answer 25

People high on this trait experience negative affect e.g. anxiety, and may engage in addictive behaviours to alleviate tension through a form of self-medication E.g. drown your sorrows with alcohol nonsense

Question 26

How does psychoticism cause addiction

Answer 26

This relates to sensation-seeking, impulsivity and being emotionally detached. Eysenck also suggested this is related to dopamine function. It is believed individuals high on this trait are most susceptible to addictions as they help manage these personality traits. Addictive behaviours raise dopamine levels

Question 27

What 3 components make up Clonigers tridimensional theory

Answer 27

High in novelty seeking, inhibited harm avoidance and reward dependence

Question 28

Evaluation, personality
- Cause and effect issues

Answer 28

P- Teenson points out that personality research is largely correlational and although many personality traits are common amongst addicts, they do not necessarily predict addictive behaviour

E- In addition, it is unknown which came first- the addiction or the personality trait, as addictive behaviour can have profound effects on behaviour, cognition and personality. Further, personality based explanation have a genetic basis e.g plasticity could mean our brains/personality are changed by addictive behaviour

L- This implies that the risk factor or personality is inconclusive and awaits further research.

Question 29

Evaluation, personality
- Evidence, Cao and Su

Answer 29

P- There is convincing evidence about personality and addiction from a study with Chinese adolescents

E- Using a volunteer sample of nearly 2,600 high school kids completed several surveys measuring personality variables (EPQ) and internet usage.

E- Results: 64 students were diagnosed as suffering from internet addiction, this equated to a prevalence of 2.4%. This group of pt’s had significant higher scores on neuroticism and psychoticism than comparison group

L- Convincing support for the role of the personality in internet addiction.

Question 30

Evaluation, personality
Evidence, Verhheul et al

Answer 30

P- Research has suggested a relationship between personality and addiction

E- Verhheul et al completed a review of research into this area and estimated personality disorders were estimated to be 44% in alcoholics, 70% cocaine addicts and 79% for opiate addicts.

E- They also suggested they were even more common for poly drug users

L- This makes this factor of personality more convincingly involved with addiction.

Question 31

Evaluation, personality
- personality can make you less vulnerable

Answer 31

P- Some personality factors can make you less vulnerable to developing addiction

E- For instance, this with high levels of resilience and/or hardiness can often help guard against involvement with drug users/addiction

E- Whats more, some of these traits can be taught to teenagers e.g hardiness training

L- Hence, suggesting personality is a risk factor for addiction is an oversimplification of this factor

Question 32

What did Livingston find in relation to family influence and addiction risk

Answer 32

When high-school students were allowed to drink at home by parents, the kids often become addicted in their first year at college.

Question 33

Given that your _____ are key ___________ of your behaviour, perceived parental approval is one of the most crucial factors in addiction.

Answer 33

Family
Determinants

Question 34

What theory can be applied when discussing family influences in relation to addiction

Answer 34

Social Learning Theory

Question 35

How can SLT be applied to addiction
(imitation, modelling and vicarious reinforcement)

Answer 35

Imitation - copying the role models behaviour through pure imitation.

Modelling - Models teach us vicariously how to engage in the addictive behaviour (e.g. what to drink, how much, etc)

Vicarious Reinforcement - We may see them in a positive state (e.g. happy drunk) but the downsides (e.g. hangovers) may be hiding from us as children.

Question 36

Evaluation, family influences
-theoretical flaw

Answer 36

P- Research highlighting the role of Family influences in addiction has a theoretical flaw, in that it can be easily explained through genetics.

E- Adoption study, Shields et al (1962) examined the concordance b/w 42 twin pairs that were reared apart. Only 9 pairs were actually discordant, showing genetic similarity is a major factor in starting to smoke.

L- This implies that the risk factor of family influences in addiction may be overstated.

Question 37

Evaluation, family influences
- Goddard

Answer 37

P- There is evidence for the role of SLT from family influences in addictive behaviours.

E- Goddard (1990) completed longitudinal research to examine factors that may predict youngsters’ smoking behaviour. The main finding was that if parents smoke, the kids are far more likely to themselves.

L- This evidence implies parents often lead by example in SMOKING behaviour and potential addiction.

Question 38

Evaluation, family influences
- Practical applications

Answer 38

P- This theory has good practical applications.

E- For example, if families can be seen as influencing children’s tendencies towards addictive behaviours, then intervention strategies can focus on this factor and target parents with the aim to emphasise the extent of their influence and persuade them to model positive behaviours rather than addictive ones.

E- For example, PARENTING classes to highlight the risks involved with modelling dangerous behaviour and not being permissive parents.

L- In this way, highlighting the role of family influences may help to reduce addictive behaviours.

Question 39

Evaluation, family influence
- Hinde suggesting importance of parental influence

Answer 39

P- The role of peer influence in addiction is argued to be more critical than parental influence in the teenage years.

E- Hinde suggested between the ages of 12-14 years PEERS become primary source of reinforcement in comparison to parents, plus, as we age partners take over this role.

L- This suggests that the role of parental influence in addiction is more critical in early formative years.

Question 40

What did O’Connell suggest were the three major features of drinking and peer pressure

Answer 40

1. An at-risk adolescents attitudes and norms about drinking are influenced by associating with peers who drink alcohol.
2. Experienced peers provide more opportunity for the at-risk person to drink alcohol.
3. The at-risk individual overestimates how much their experienced peers are drinking, and over drinks to try and ‘catch up’.

Question 41

What other theory can be applied to peer groups

Answer 41

SLT
E.g teen friends are our role models

Question 42

What social influence theory can be linked to peer groups

Answer 42

NSI
- Need to be liked

Question 43

Evaluation, peer groups
- Evidence, Sussmans and Ames

Answer 43

P- This is evidence to support the notion that peers influence addictive behaviours.

E- Sussman and Ames’ (2001) research has shown that peer use of drugs was one of the best predictors of future drug use by others. It was believed that peers helped create normative perceptions (or subjective norms) that such behaviours are socially acceptable.

L- This suggests that peer influence is a significant factor in addiction and its management.

Question 44

Evaluation, peer groups
- practical applications

Answer 44

P- Research into peer networks and addictions has good PRACTICAL APPLICATION.

E- Social norm interventions has been developed to address adolescent behaviour and attitude formation. Through focusing on adolescent perceptions of how their peers think, this approach challenges overestimations of problem behaviours. Correcting these misperceptions through education can decrease addictions and likelihood of substance dependence.;

L- Hence, peer influence as a risk factor can help society target preventative strategies

Question 45

Evaluation, peer groups
- Age playing a factor

Answer 45

P- The role of peer networks is heavily influenced by AGE, and has minimal impact at certain stages throughout our lives.

E- For example, in early adolescence peers are certainly influential, but as time passes they are replaced with partners as a primary source of reinforcement.

L- As many people develop addictions at a later stage in life when their peer group may hold less sway, research into peers as a risk factor is currently incomplete

Question 46

Evaluation, peer groups
- Correlational

Answer 46

P- Peers as a risk factor in addiction is only correlational.

E- As we are only able to study and note peer associations of those who have addictive behaviours, we must question which came first - the links with key peers or the addiction itself?

E- We are drawn to people with similar interests to ourselves and those that share similar demographics (and philosophies), so perhaps once we develop addictions we befriend certain people that could increase our access to addictions.

L- Hence, peers and peer choice may be a result of the addiction - or other risk factors

Question 47

__________ et al completed a review of research into this area and estimated personality disorders were estimated to be __% in alcoholics, __% cocaine addicts and __% for opiate addicts.

Answer 47

Verhheul
44
70
79