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A&P 1 > A&P TEST 3 > Flashcards

A&P TEST 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What does cellular respiration do?

A

it’s how cells make ATP

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2
Q

Overall is cellular respiration endergonic or exergonic?

A

exergonic

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3
Q

How is energy released during cellular respiration?

A

through potential energy in chemical bonds, when broken energy is released

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4
Q

The energy released is used to synthesize ATP which is what type of reaction? exergonic or endergonic?

A
  • endergonic, energy requiring process
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5
Q

Is oxygen required for cellular respiration?

A

yes

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6
Q

What is the formula for glucose oxidation?

A

C6H12O2 + 6 O2 —> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

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7
Q

In words, what is the formula for glucose oxidation?

A

glucose + oxygen yields carbon dioxide and water

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8
Q

Some of the energy of broken bonds captured to

attach what group to ADP

A

phosphate group

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9
Q

What are two ways that phosphorylation occurs?

A

substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation

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10
Q

What is substrate-level phosphorylation ?

A

direct synthesis of ATP

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11
Q

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

A

energy first released to coenzymes (e.g., NAD+, FAD)

• that energy then transferred to form ATP

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12
Q

What type of phosphorylation is more common?

A

oxidative phosphorylation

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13
Q

What type of enzyme does substrate- level phosphorylation use?

A

KINASE enzyme

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14
Q

Enzymes for glucose oxidation are found in both:

A

The cytosol, semifluid cell contents

– The mitochondria, small organelles within the cell

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15
Q

Stages of glucose oxidation:

A

Glycolysis, Citric acid cycle and electron transport system

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16
Q

Where do each of the stages of cellular respiration occur?

A
  • glycolysis - cytosol
  • Citric acid cycle in the matrix of the mitochondria
  • ETS in the cristae of the mitochondria
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17
Q

Which stages are anaerobic vs aerobic?

A 
anaerobic = glycolysis
aerobic = CAC and ETS
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18
Q

What’s needed for glycolysis to occur?

A

1 glucose molecule
2 NAD + molecules
2 ATPs

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19
Q

What does glycolysis yield?

A

NET 2 ATps
2 NADHs
2 Pyruvate molecules

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20
Q

The pathway of glycolysis consists of how many enzymes?

A

10

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21
Q

If there is no oxygen available once pyruvate is made what happens? What if there is oxygen available?

A

If sufficient O2 available, pyruvate enters mitochondria

– If insufficient O2 available, pyruvate converted to lactate

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22
Q

What is lactate?

A

the thing that makes our muslces sore and that our heart likes

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23
Q

What is the second step of cellular respiration?

A

the citric acid cycle (also called the Kreb’s cycle)

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24
Q

What is required for the citric acid cycle to occur?

A

Acetyl CoA

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25
Q

How is Acetyl CoA made?

A

from oxidizing pyruvate

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26
Q

What does the citric acid cycle yield?

A

2 ATP
8 NADHs
2 FADH

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27
Q

What is important to remember during the citric acid cycle and the ETC?

A

that because glycolysis made TWO pyruvates they each go through the steps (yielding twice as many molecules)

….for example each citric acid cycle only yields 1 ATP but bc it happens twice is why it yields 2

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28
Q

Where do NADH and FADH go?

A

to the ETC

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29
Q

How many enzymes are used during the CAC?

A

9

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30
Q

What is acetyl CoA converted to within the cycles?

A

2 carbon dioxide molecules

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31
Q

What does the electron transport chain do?

A 
Involves the transfer
of electrons from
NADH and FADH2
• energy released
used to make ATP
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32
Q

What’s the simplified steps of the ETC?

A

electron carriers, H+
pumps, ATP
synthetase enzymes

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33
Q

Whats the final electron acceptor of the ETC? and why is this significant?

A

Oxygen, if O is not available the etc will back up

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34
Q

What does cyanide do to the ETC?

A

blocks oxygen form accepting electron which means cell depends on glycolysis and cannot make enough energy from glycolysis alone

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35
Q

What are the other two fuel molecules that can be oxidized to generate ATP?

A

Fatty acids and proteins

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36
Q

When do the other fuel molecules increase?

A

during conditions of starvation

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37
Q

Fatty acids are the prefered molecules for what? What type of energy does it provide and where in cellular respiration does it come in at?

A
  • preferred molecules for muscle tissue at rest
  • long term energy storage as triglycerides
  • comes in the at citric acid cycle as acetyl CoA
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38
Q

Where do proteins enter the cellular respiration? And what happens to the amine group if it’s used as a fuel molecule?

A

different amino acids enter pathway at different points, the amine group is removed and waste converted to urea and excreted

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39
Q

When is proteins used as fuel?

A

only in emergencies as a last resort

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40
Q

What are cells known as?

A

the functional units of the body

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41
Q

What is the study of cells?

A

cytology

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42
Q

Who was Galileo, Robert Hook and Antonie Van Leeuenhoek ?

A

Galileo was involved with ballistics and optics invented the telescope

  • Hook made the first microscope and coined the term CELL
  • Leeuenhoek was the first t see bacteria under microscope
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43
Q

What are the two categories of microscopes?

A

Light microscope, electron microscope

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44
Q

How does a light microscope work?

A

produces a TWO DIMENSIONAL image, light passed through lens, staining is used for contrast

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45
Q

Whats an electron microscope?

A

It’s similar to the light microscope but uses beam of electrons instead of light

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46
Q

Why is an electron microscope more advanced?

A

it produces better image

  • greater magnification
  • greater ability to see detail
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47
Q

What are the two types of electron microscopes?

A

Transmission electron microscope and scanning electron microscope

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48
Q

Whats a TEM?

A

– Directs an electron beam through thin cut sections

– Produces two-dimensional images

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49
Q

Whats an SEM?

A

– Directs an electron beam across the surface of a specimen

– Generates a three-dimensional study

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50
Q

What is the plasma membrane?

A

Forms the outer limiting barrier

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51
Q

What does the plasma membrane separate?

A

Separates internal contents of cell from external environment
(inside = interstital fluid)
(outside = extracellular fluid)

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52
Q

What are the equal parts of the plasma membrane (by weight)?

A

Lipids and proteins

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53
Q

What are the two types of models that were based on the structure of the plasma membrane? which is the correct model?

A

Sandwich model

- Fluid mosaic model

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54
Q

Why was the fluid mosaic model correct?

A

bc it has the molecules int he membrane moving relative to each other
- strong evidence for fluidity of membrane

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55
Q

Is the plasma membrane polar or non polar?

A

non polar

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56
Q

What are the different types of lipids the plasma membrane contains?

A

phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids

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57
Q

Most membrane lipids are what?

A

phospholipids

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58
Q

What is the sheet like structure of phospholipids called?

A

phopholipid bilayer

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59
Q

What do the phospholipid bilayer ensure?

A

Ensures cytosol and fluid surrounding cells remain separate

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60
Q

Where is cholesterol in the bilayer located and what does cholesterol do for membrane?

A
  • Scattered within phospholipid bilayer
    – Strengthens the membrane
    – Stabilizes the membrane against temperature extremes
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61
Q

What are glycolipids? Where are they located and what do they help form?

A
  • Lipids with attached carbohydrate groups
    – Located on outer phospholipid region only
    – Helps to form the glycocalyx
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62
Q

What does glycocalyx do?

A

acts as a name tag allowing our body to see which cells belong to us and which might be invaders

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63
Q

Membrane proteins compose what amount of the plasma membrane by weight?

A

half

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64
Q

How are membrane proteins presented in the bilayer?

A

they can float and move aobut the fluid bilayer

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65
Q

Most of a membrane’s functions are determined what?

A

resident proteins

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66
Q

How membrane proteins classified pertaining to the location on the membrane?

A

as integral or peripheral proteins

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67
Q

Where are integral proteins?

A

Embedded within and extend across lipid bilayer

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68
Q

Because integral proteins are within the bilayer what two parts do they consist of ?

A

hydrophobic and hydrophilic

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69
Q

Integral proteins are often what type of proteins with what attached to it?

A

glycoproteins with carbohydrate portion`

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70
Q

Where are peripheral proteins located?

A

– Not embedded in lipid bilayer

– Attach loosely to surfaces of the membrane

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71
Q

What are the functional categories of the membrane proteins?

A
  • transport proteins
  • cell surface receptors
  • identity markers
  • enzymes
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72
Q

Transport proteins do what? list 3 examples..

A

regulate movement of substances across membrane

• e.g., channels, carriers, and pumps

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73
Q

Cell surface receptors do what? list 2 examples…

A

bind ligand molecules released from a specific cell
• bind receptors on another cell
• e.g., neurotransmitters and hormones

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74
Q

Identity markers do what? give an example…

A

communicate to other cells

• e.g., immune system cells distinguishing healthy cells from foreign cells

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75
Q

Enzymes do what?

A

catalyze chemical reactions

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76
Q

Membrane transport is a process that does what for the plasma membrane?

A

Regulating movement of materials into and out of a cell

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77
Q

What can go through the bilayer without being transported?

A

small and nonpolar molecules like CO2 and O

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78
Q

Membrane transport can be what or what?

A

active or passive

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79
Q

Passive process of membrane transport does not require what and what does this depend on? list two types of passive processes…

A
  • does not require energy
  • dependent on substances moving DOWN concentration gradient
  • diffusion and osmosis
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80
Q

Active process of membrane transport requires what and what type of movement is this? list two types of active processes…

A
  • requires energy
  • movement of substance UP it’s concentration gradient
  • active transport and vesicular transport
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81
Q

Diffusion:

A
  • Describes net movement of a substance
    – Moves from area of greater concentration to area of lesser
    concentration
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82
Q

If unopposed diffusion continues until what?

A

equilibrium

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83
Q

What are the two environmental conditions that affect diffusion? both of these cause what rate of diffusion

A
  • “Steepness” of concentration gradient
  • temperature

*both cause faster rate of diffusion

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84
Q

What are the two types of diffusion?

A

simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion

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85
Q

Simple diffusion can be compared to what? Is energy required?

A

ball rolling down the hill

- no energy required

86
Q

Facilitated diffusion can be compared to what? Is energy required?

A

ball being pushed up hill

- energy required

87
Q

What are the two types of facilitated diffusion?

A
  • channel-mediated diffusion

• carrier-mediated diffusion

88
Q

Channel- mediated diffustion is:

A

Movement of small ions through water-filled protein channels

– Channels specific for one ion type

89
Q

What are the two types of channel- mediated diffusion?

A

leak channels and gated channels

90
Q

Whats the difference between leak channels and gated channels?

A

leak channels are continuously open

- gated channels are usually closed and open in response to stimuli

91
Q

Carrier mediated channels do what?

A
  • moves substance down gradient,

- Binding of substance causing change in carrier protein shape

92
Q

Osmosis is what?

A

the passive movement of water through selectively permeable membrane

93
Q

Water follows what during osmosis?

A

the solutes

94
Q

Tonicity is what?

A

the number of solutes

95
Q

Does the type of solutes mater with osmosis and tonicity?

A

no, only the number matters

96
Q

What are the two types of solutes with the selectively permeable membrane?

A
  • permeable solutes and nonpermeable solutes
97
Q

Permeable solutes include?

A

small and non polar

98
Q

Nonpermeable solutes include?

A

large, charged and polar

99
Q

A greater concentration solutes leads to what type of concentration with water?

A

lesser concnetration of water

100
Q

Osmotic pressure is what?

A

Pressure exerted by movement of water across semipermeable membrane

101
Q

Isotonic is what net movement of water?

A

no net movement, equal number of solutes and solution

102
Q

What is the isotonic solution for erythrocytes?

A

0.9% NaCl

103
Q

Hypotonic is what number of solutes? because water followers solutes what can this cause?

A
  • low number of solutes outside the cell

- water followers solutes inside the cell causing the cell to burst (hemolysis)

104
Q

Hypertonic solution is what number of solutes? Because water followers the number of solutes what can this cause?

A

high number of solutes outside the cell

- water followers solutes outside the cell causing cell to shrink (crenation)

105
Q

How does active transport solutes move?

A

it moves against a concentration gradient

106
Q

Primary active transport uses energy directly or indirectly to break down ATP?

A

directly

107
Q

How does primary active transport work?

A
  • adds phosphate group to transport protein, changes it shape, moves it across the membrane,
108
Q

Because primary active transport adds phosphates to protein what is it termed?

A

phosphorylation

109
Q

How does the sodium potassium pump work?

A

exchange pump. pushes one ion out of the cell and the other ion in the cell both against the gradient

110
Q

How many Na+ ions are pumped out and how many K+ ions are pumped in?

A

3 Na+ pumped out

2 K+ pumped in

111
Q

Does the sodium potassium pump require energy?

A

yes 1 ATP per pump

112
Q

The sodium potassium pump mains what?

A

an electrochemical gradient which is a electrical charge difference across plasma membrane

113
Q

Voltage differences in the membrane is called what? what is it called when it’s at rest?

A

membrane potential

resting membrane potential

114
Q

Resting membrane potential is what?

A

-70 mv

115
Q

Vesicular transport uses vesicles which are what?

A

membrane-bounded sac filled with materials

116
Q

Does vesicular transport require energy?

A

yes

117
Q

What is exocytosis?

A
  • vesicle fuses with membrane

• releases substances outside the cel

118
Q

What is endocytosis?

A
  • vesicle encloses material outside cell

• fuses with membrane to release inside cell

119
Q

Exocytosis is good for what?

A

to move large substances outside the cell

120
Q

Endocytosis is used for what three things?

A
  • Used for the uptake of materials for digestion
    – Used for retrieval of membrane from exocytosis
    – Used for regulating membrane protein composition
121
Q

What are the three types of endocytosis?

A

phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis

122
Q

What is the inward fold of a membrane to form a pocket during endocytosis called?

A

invagination

123
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

engulfing of large particles

  • uses pseudopodia
  • lysosome fuse with vesicle and release digestive enzymes
  • EX: marcrophage
124
Q

What are the membrane bound organelles?

A

ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosome, peroxisomes, mitochondria

125
Q

Where is the point of insertion for enzymes located?

A

the ER

126
Q

The rough ER is for what? how ribosomes transported out?

A

protein production by ribosomes

- transported out by transport vesicles, shuttles proteins from rough ER to golgi apparatus

127
Q

What are some functions of the smooth er?

A

synthesis, transport, and storage of lipids
• carbohydrate metabolism
• detoxification of drugs, alcohols, and poisons

128
Q

Where is plentiful smooth ER?

A

cells of the testes to produce testosterone

- cells of the liver

129
Q

What is the function of golgi apparatus?

A

packaging and storing

130
Q

What does lysosomes do?

A

digestive enzymes

131
Q

What does mitochondria do?

A
  • digestion of fuel molecules to synthesize ATP
  • termed POWERHOUSES
  • Increase through fusion
132
Q

What does ribosomes contain?

A
  • Contain protein and ribonucleic acid
133
Q

Where are ribosomes made and where are they assembled?

A

– Made within nucleolus and assembled in cytoplasm

134
Q

The cytoskeleton plays a role in what 4 things?

A
  • intracellular support
  • organization of organelles
  • cell division
  • movement of materials
135
Q

The cytoskeleton includes what things?

A

microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules. actin

136
Q

Cilia is found where?

A

lining portions of the respiratory tract

137
Q

Flagella help with what? where is it found in humans?

A

movement, found only in sperm cell

138
Q

Microvilli increases what? what is it supported by?

A

surface area, supported by microfilaments

139
Q

The nucleus is the cell’s what?

A

control center

140
Q

The nucleolus is made up of what? what does it produce?

A

proteins and RNA

- produces ribosomes

141
Q

The nucleus has a double what?

A

phospholipid membrane

142
Q

What is gap junction?

A

allows material to go cell to cell directly

*tunnel

143
Q

What is tight junction?

A

Materials cannot move between cells force to move through the cell

144
Q

What is desmosomes?

A

stronger bonds for places with stress

- ex: skin

145
Q

DNA is coiled around what? what do these prduce?

A

histones they produce nucleosomes

146
Q

If not coiled DNA is called what?

A

chromatin

147
Q

If coiled DNA is called what?

A

chromosomes

148
Q

What is the center of chromosomes called?

A

centromere

149
Q

What are the funcitonal organization of DNA?

A

genes

150
Q

DNA is?

A

segmental units of nucleotides

151
Q

What does DNA provide instruction for?

A

synthesis of specific proteins

152
Q

DNA has what two regions?

A

start & stop

153
Q

What is the enzyme that assembles ribonucleotides?

A

RNA polymerase

154
Q

What is the start of the DNA region called?

A

promoter (AUG, MET)

155
Q

What is the end of DNA region called?

A

Terminator region, 3 possible codons

156
Q

What are the 3 types of RNA used during transcription?

A
  • mRNA
  • tRNA
  • rRNA
157
Q

What is mRNA?

A

mesenger RNA

- brings DNA from template

158
Q

What’s tRNA?

A

transfer RNA

- brings amino acids to the ribosome for assembly

159
Q

What’s rRNA?

A

ribosomal RNA

- used to build ribosomes

160
Q

What’s transcription? where does it occur?

A

mRNA brings recipe to the ribosome, occurs in the nucleus

161
Q

Whats translation?

A

the language of DNA is translated into the language of proteins

162
Q

How does translation work?

A

the genetic code (nucleotides) are combined into sets of 3 (codons) and translated into chains of amino acids (the building block of proteins) they’re linked by peptide bonds and it COSTS 3 ATP each peptide bond formed

163
Q

What are codons?

A

sets of 3 nucleotides used to form the recipe for proteins

164
Q

How many combinations of codons are possible?

A

64

165
Q

The amino acid cysteine is responsible fo rwhat?

A

for disulphide bonds, the most powerful bonds found in proteins

166
Q

What is cell division called?

A

mitosis

167
Q

What does cell division begin with and end with?

A

1 diploid cell —> 2 identical daughter cells

168
Q

What is a diploid cell?

A

cells that have chromosomes in homologous pairs

169
Q

What is a homologous pair?

A

chromosomes have genes for the same train at the same location

170
Q

What are the 5 phases of mitosis?

A

Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

171
Q

What are the three steps of interphase?

A

o 1. Regular Cell function
o 2. DNA is uncoiled into chromatin
o 3. DNA replicated

172
Q

What are the three steps of prophase?

A

o 1. DNA re-coils into chromosomes
 One pair of sister chromatids per chromosome
o 2. Nuclear envelope dissolves
o 3. Spindle fibers form at the poles 

173
Q

What are the three steps of metaphase?

A

o 1. Chromosomes align at equator
o 2. Spindle fibers attach to each chromatid
o 3. Centromeres replicate

174
Q

What are the three steps of anaphase?

A

o 1. Chromatids separated
o 2. Chromosomes toward poles
o 3. Cell temporarily tetraploid (4 pairs homologous pairs)
- double chromosome from the begining!

175
Q

What are the three steps of telophase?

A

o 1. Chromosomes arrive at poles
o 2. Nuclear envelope re-forms
o 3. Cytokinesis occurs (cell splits)
- division of cytoplasm

176
Q

What are tissues?

A

o Group of similar cells working together for perform a similar function

177
Q

How many types of epithelial are there?

A

4 types

178
Q

What are the 4 types of epithelial tissue?

A

epithelium, connective, nervous, muscular

179
Q

Epithelial does what 3 things?

A

• “lines, covers, protects”

180
Q

How would you describe epithelium tissue? what are the cells held together by? is there a lot of extraculluar matrix? describe the vessels…

A

o Layers of closely packed cells
 Held together by tight junctions
 Little or no extracellular matrix (stuff outside the cell)
 Avascular (no blood vessels)

181
Q

Epithelial forms a majority of what?

A

glads

182
Q

In the tissue structure the polarity has what two types of surfaces?

A

apical (free surface), basal surface

183
Q

Where could you find the apical surface?

A

• Exposed to the external environment or internal body cavity

184
Q

Where would you find the basal surface

A

• Attached to a ‘basement membrane’ of connective tissue

185
Q

The basement membrane is composed of what? describe the vessels?

A

 Collagen fibers, carbohydrates, & proteins

 Avascular

186
Q

Epithelium tissue features what?

A

 Extensive Innervation

187
Q

What is Extensive Innervation?

A

o Touch, pressure, temperature, pain

188
Q

What is the specialized epithelum called that detect the senses? name the senses it detects?

A

neuroepithelium

-  Sight, taste, smell, hearing, equilibrium

189
Q

How does epithelium regenerate?

A

 High Regenerative Capacity (heals quickly)

190
Q

What type of barrier does epithelium provide?

A

 Physical Protection

191
Q

What does the epithelium protect from?

A

dehydration, abrasion, destruction

192
Q

Is epithelium selectively permeable or permeable to all things?

A

selectively permeable

193
Q

How is epithelium named?

A

by the layers, and the cell shape

194
Q

What does simple epithelial tissue do?

A

 Filtration, absorption, secretion

195
Q

Where is stratified epithelial tissue found?

A

 Mechanically stressed areas (friction)

196
Q

How does epithelial tissue regenerates?

A

 Basal layer continually replaces apical layer

197
Q

Simple squamous is found where?

A

• Lungs, blood & lymph vessels

198
Q

SImple squamous within blood vessels is called what?

A

endothelium

199
Q

Simple cubodial is found in what two places?

A
  • Secretory region of glands

* Ducts of exocrine glands

200
Q

SImple columnar often have what structure in it?

A

goblet cells

201
Q

Goblet cells do what?

A

 Unicellular gland

 Secretes Mucin (+water = mucous)

202
Q

What do goblet cells secrete and is it mulitcellular or unicellular?

A

 Unicellular gland

 Secretes Mucin (+water = mucous)

203
Q

Non- ciliated has a “brush border” what is the structure that makes it appear that way?

A

microvilli

204
Q

What does ciliated simple colomnar do? where is it found?

A

o Move mucous

o Found in respiratory tract (small tubes)

205
Q

Ciliated pseudostratified columnar is found where?

A

o Found in respiratory tract (large tubes)

206
Q

Non- ciliated simple columnar lack what two structures? where is it commonly found?

A

o Lack goblet cells & cilia

o Urethra & epididymis

207
Q

In STRATIFIED squamous the basement layer is made of us what usually and the apical layer is made up f what?

A

• Basal layer = cuboidal, Apical layer = squamous

208
Q

Keratinized stratified squamous has the apical layer what? where is it commonly found?

A 
o	Apical layer dead
o	Epidermous (top layer of skin)
209
Q

Non-keratinized stratified squamous is what to the surface? where is it commonly found? how is the top layers kept moist?

A

o Alive to surface
o Top layers kept moist by secretions
o Mouth, Esophagus, Vagina

210
Q

Glands can be categorized as what two things?

A

endocrine and exocrine

211
Q

Describe Endocride glands..what things are usually endocrine glands? think systems DUH

A

o No ducts

o Hormones

212
Q

Exocrine glads secrete where? describe them…

A

(secrete outside)

o Ducts

A&P 1 (8 decks)

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