A+P II - UNIT 1 LECTURE Flashcards
Identify the class of hormone by its characteristics:
- Lipid
- Receptor on the cell membrane
- Synthesized in the adrenal medulla
- Synthesized in the adrenal cortex
- Receptor inside the cell
- Made from cholesterol
- Made from amino acids
Steroid - Lipid
Protein - Receptor on the cell membrane
Protein - Synthesized in the adrenal medulla
Steroid - Synthesized in the adrenal cortex
Steroid - Receptor inside the cell
Steroid - Made from cholesterol
Protein - Made from amino acids
In comparison with the nervous system, the regulatory effects of the endocrine system are:
- Fast to appear OR Slow to appear
- Short-lasting OR Long-lasting
- Slow to appear
- Long-lasting
A _____ hormone is able to pass easily through a target cell’s plasma membrane because they are lipid soluble.
Steroid
A _____ hormone receptor is on the cell surface because it cannot pass through the cell’s plasma membrane.
Protein
What two hormones are stored and secreted from the posterior pituitary gland?
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
- Oxytocin
TRUE OR FALSE?
Only endocrine glands secrete hormones.
False
What network of blood vessels connects the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary?
Hypophyseal portal system
Why does the hypothalamus act as both a neural and endocrine organ?
- Neurosecretory cells secrete hormones
- Neurons send action potentials (ANS)
What stimulus influences the release of ADH?
Dehydration
What organ does ADH target?
Kidney
What is the primary action of ADH?
Decreases the amount of H2O lost at the kidneys by increasing reabsorption of H2O into the blood
What is the condition caused by too MUCH growth hormone in a developing child?
Gigantism
What is the condition caused by too LITTLE growth hormone in a developing child?
Pituitary dwarfism
What are the effects of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factors on muscle and bones?
Protein synthesis by increasing amino acid uptake.
Name two stimuli that lead to the thyroid secreting more thyroid hormone:
- Decreased blood levels of T3 and T4.
- Decreased basal body temperature.
What hormone is secreted by the anterior pituitary that tells the thyroid to secrete more thyroid hormone?
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
What is an enlarged thyroid gland associated with hypothyroidism called?
Goiter
Complete the sentences for the functions of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
- They _____ protein synthesis.
- They _____ metabolism.
- They _____ glucose use.
- They increase protein synthesis.
- They increase metabolism.
- They increase glucose use.
The hormone _____ decreases blood calcium levels.
calcitonin
The hormone _____ increases blood calcium levels and removes calcium from the bones
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Removal of the parathyroid glands would result in _____ blood Ca+2 levels.
decreased
What is the stimuli that leads to cortisol being released?
Stress
Which gland secretes cortisol?
Adrenal cortex
What 2 effects does cortisol have on the body?
- Decreased inflammation (Immunosuppression)
- Increased metabolism
What hormone is released from the anterior pituitary in response to stress?
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Addison’s is a condition of _____ cortical hormone secretion.
decreased
Cushing’s is a condition of _____ cortical hormone secretion.
increased
What endocrine organ is responsible for blood glucose levels?
Pancreas
What pancreas hormone is secreted when blood glucose is too high?
Insulin
What pancreas hormone is secreted when blood glucose is too low?
Glucagon
Type _____ diabetes is caused when the immune system attacks the pancreas.
1
Type _____ diabetes is caused by lifestyle factors.
2
The hormone _____ stimulates organs and tissues to release glucose.
glucagon
The hormone _____ stimulates organs and tissues to increase their uptake of glucose.
insulin
What are the three symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus?
- Polyuria - increased urination
- Polydipsia - increased thirst
- Polyphagia - increased hunger
List the components of blood from highest concentration to lowest:
- Plasma
- Red blood cells
- Platelets
- White blood cells
Match the cells with their function:
1. Red blood cell
2. White blood cell
3. Platelet
- Red blood cell - Transports oxygen
- White blood cell - Defends against disease
- Platelet - Clotting
What are the functions of the circulatory system?
- Transportation
- Protection
- Regulation
What are the two principle components of the blood?
- Plasma
- Formed elements
List three major classes of plasma proteins:
- Albumin
- Globulins (α, β, γ)
- Fibrinogen
What does hemopoiesis mean?
The production of blood cells and platelets, which occurs in the bone marrow.
Where the majority of plasma proteins made?
Liver
What is plasma composed of?
- Water (92%)
- Plasma (7%)
- Dissolved molecules and ions (1%) (hormones)
Red blood cells transport _____ to body tissues and carry _____ away.
- oxygen
- carbon dioxide
What molecule in red blood cells carries oxygen?
Hemoglobin
- What is the stimulus that leads to erythropoiesis?
- What is the name of the hormone that stimulates erythropoiesis?
- What organ secretes it?
- What is its target?
- Hypoxemia (decreased oxygen levels in blood)
- Erythropoietin (EPO)
- Kidneys
- Red bone marrow
Identify the leukocyte:
Increase in _____ with bacteria infection.
neutrophils
Identify the leukocyte:
In an allergic reaction, _____ secrete histamine.
basophils
Identify the leukocyte:
Increase in _____ with parasite infection.
eosinophils
Large phagocytic cell that spends of its time outside the blood as fixed and free phagocytic cells is a _____.
monocyte
What is the overall function of leukocytes?
Defends the body against infection and disease.
What is the term used when a neutrophil “eats” a bacteria?
Phagocytosis
Are basophils phagocytes?
No, basophils are involved in controlling allergic reactions by secreting histamine.
What is the name of the cell from which platelets come?
Megakaryocytes
List the 3 steps in hemostasis:
- Vasospasm
- Platelet plug
- Coagulation
How would removing Ca+2 from blood affect coagulation?
Prevent coagulation
What could a lack of vitamin K result in?
Hemorrhaging
A function of the blood is to _____ nutrients and wastes.
transport
A function of the blood is to _____ body heat.
regulate/transport
A function of the blood is _____ against toxins and pathogens.
defense
The majority of blood is composed of _____.
plasma
The majority of plasma proteins are made in the _____.
liver
The most abundant formed element in blood is _____.
erythrocytes
The molecule that binds oxygen in red blood cells is _____.
hemoglobin
All bone cells are made in _____.
red bone marrow
Red blood cell production is regulated by the hormone _____.
erythropoietin
The function of red blood cells is to carry _____ to the cells and then carry away _____.
- oxygen
- carbon dioxide
The function of white blood cells is to _____ the body against infectious organisms.
defend
Type AB blood would have type _____ antigens and _____ plasma antibodies.
- A and B surface
- no
TRUE OR FALSE?
A person needs to be exposed to the Rh antigen to develop Rh antibodies.
True
_____ are large phagocytic white cells that spend most of their time outside the blood as fixed and free phagocytic cells.
Monocytes
_____ release histamines.
Basophils
_____ are increased in parasitic infections.
Eosinophils
_____ are increased in bacterial infections.
Neutrophils
Basophils are involved in controlling allergic reactions by secreting _____.
histamine
Removal of calcium ions from blood would _____ coagulation.
prevent
Rat poisons contain a toxin that blocks the liver’s ability to utilize vitamin K. Animals that consume this poison would die of _____.
hemorrhaging
_____ involves a cascade of reactions leading to the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin.
Coagulation
Thrombocytes are pieces of a larger cell called a _____.
megakaryocyte
Extrinsic and intrinsic pathways of coagulation lead to the _____.
final common pathway
List the order of hemostasis:
- Vasospasm
- Platelet plug
- Coagulation
Type O blood would have _____ antigens and Type _____ plasma antibodies
- no
- A and B
Macrophages in the _____ and _____ breakdown old red blood cells.
- liver
- spleen
The heme portion of hemoglobin is converted to _____.
bilirubin
Taking synthetic erythropoietin will result in an _____ in erythrocytes.
increase
The buffy coat consists of _____ and _____.
- platelets
- white blood cells
_____ transports oxygen through the body.
Erythrocytes
_____ are cell fragments that are involved in blood clotting.
Platelets
_____ are the most numerous type of leukocyte.
Neutrophils
_____ are primarily involved in the allergic response.
Basophils
The plasma protein _____ draws water into blood vessels by osmosis.
albumin
Type _____ is considered the universal donor.
O-
Type _____ blood is considered the universal recipient.
AB+
The average life span of an erythrocyte is _____.
120 days
The globin portion of hemoglobin is broken down into _____ and recycled.
amino acids
The plasma protein _____ breaks down fibrin clots.
plasmin
List the layers of the heart wall from superficial to deep.
- Epicardium
- Myocardium
- Endocardium
Which layer of the heart wall is the thickest?
Myocardium
What cells make up the myocardium?
Cardiac muscle cells
Why is the left ventricle 3 times thicker than the right ventricle?
The left ventricle has to pump harder to overcome the high resistance required to pump blood into the long systemic circuit.
What is the purpose of the heart valves?
To control the flow of blood through the heart and prevent blood backflow.
What makes the “Lubb” heart sound?
The closing of the AV valves.
What makes the “Dubb” heart sound?
The closing of the semilunar valves.
What is the function of the atrioventricular valves?
They prevent the backflow of blood into the atria.
What is the function of the semilunar valves?
They prevent the backflow of blood from the arteries into the ventricles.
What are the three layers of the heart wall?
- Epicardium
- Myocardium
- Endocardium
What supplies blood to the myocardium?
Coronary arteries
Superior and inferior vena cava to the _____.
The right atrium flows through the right AV valve into the _____.
Blood flows through the pulmonary valve into the _____.
Blood is distributed by the right and left pulmonary arteries to the _____.
The lungs to the pulmonary veins to the _____.
The left atrium flows through the left AV valve into the _____.
Through the aortic valve into the _____.
Blood in the aorta to _____.
Superior and inferior vena cava to the right atrium.
The right atrium flows through the right AV valve into the right ventricle.
Blood flows through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary trunk.
Blood is distributed by the right and left pulmonary arteries to the lungs.
The lungs to the pulmonary veins to the left atrium.
The left atrium flows through the left AV valve into the left ventricle.
Through the aortic valve into the ascending aorta.
Blood in the aorta to the body.
The hypothalamus acts as both a neural and an _____ organ.
endocrine
Hormone release may be controlled by which 3 factors?
- Hormonal
- Humoral
- Nervous
TRUE OR FALSE?
Steroid hormones are produced by the adrenal medulla.
FALSE
The hypothalamus controls secretion by the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) by secreting, releasing and inhibiting hormones into a _____ system.
hypophyseal portal
_____ are chemical messengers that are released from on tissue and transported in the bloodstream to alter the activities of specific cells in other tissues.
Hormones
Excess secretion of growth hormone during early development will cause _____.
gigantism
Insufficient secretion of growth hormone during early development will cause _____.
pituitary dwarfism
_____ is released from the anterior pituitary and causes the thyroid to secrete _____ hormone.
- Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- Thyroid
The three hormones secreted from the adrenal cortex are:
- Aldosterone (salt)
- Cortisol (sugar)
- Androgens (sex)
The adrenal medulla secretes _____ and _____.
- epinephrine
-norepinephrine
The kidneys secrete _____, the active form of vitamin D.
calcitriol
The kidneys secrete _____, which increases red blood cell production.
erythropoietin
The kidneys secrete _____, an enzyme that regulates sodium ion concentration.
renin
The _____ responds in emergencies to help the body adjust to stress by secreting the hormone _____.
- adrenal cortex
- cortisol
The _____ gland secretes _____ that increases blood calcium levels.
- parathyroid
- parathyroid hormone (PTH)
The primary function of _____ is to decrease the amount of water lost at the kidneys.
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
The regulatory effects of the endocrine system are _____ to appear but _____ lasting.
- slow
- long
A decrease in basal body temperature will stimulate the release of _____ hormone.
thyroid
The hormone _____ will decrease blood glucose levels.
insulin
The hormone _____ will increase blood glucose levels.
glucagon
Type 1 diabetes mellitus is most likely caused by _____.
autoimmune
Type 2 diabetes mellitus is most likely caused by _____.
lifestyle factors
Most hormones secreted by the hypothalamus pass into _____that branch from the superior hypophyseal artery and reach the _____ pituitary.
- capillary beds
- anterior
Oxytocin (OXT) and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) are synthesized in the _____ and are stored in the _____ pituitary.
- hypothalamus
- posterior
What are the three P’s of Diabetes Mellitus?
- Polyuria
- Polydipsia
- Polyphagia
Growth hormone will cause the _____ to make and secrete insulin-like growth factors (IGFs).
liver
Parafollicular (C) cells in the thyroid synthesize the hormone _____.
calcitonin
Follicular cells in the thyroid gland synthesize the hormone _____.
T3 & T4 (Thyroid Hormones)
Beta cells in the pancreas synthesize the hormone _____.
insulin
Alpha cells in the pancreas synthesize the hormone _____.
glucagon
The zona glomerulosa synthesizes the hormone _____.
aldosterone
The zona fasciculata synthesizes the hormone _____.
cortisol
The stimulus responsible for the release of insulin is an _____ in blood glucose.
increase
The stimulus responsible for the release of the parathyroid hormone is a _____ in blood calcium levels.
decrease
The anterior pituitary is also called the _____ and the posterior pituitary is called the _____.
- adenohypophysis
- neurohypophysis
Most of the middle layer in the heart is composed of _____ muscle cells.
cardiac
The pulmonary arteries carry blood to the _____.
lungs
The _____ delivers blood to the myocardium
coronary arteries
In the systemic circuit, the left ventricle pumps blood to the _____.
aorta
The long plateau phase of the cardiac muscle action potential is due to _____ channels remaining open.
calcium
_____ voltage-gated channels and T-type _____ channels open in SA node nodal cells when the cell repolarizes to -60 mV from the previous cycle.
- Slow Na+
- Ca+2
The opening of these _____ voltage-gated channels takes the nodal cells to threshold of -60 mV to -40 mV causing _____ L-type channels to depolarize the nodal cell.
- cation
- Ca+2
The long plateau phase of the cardiac contractile cells prevents _____.
tetany
The sinoatrial nodal cells exhibit _____ because they spontaneously depolarize and initiate action potentials without external influence.
autorhythmicity
The _____ arteries supply blood to the myocardium.
coronary
The normal pacemaker of the heart is located in the _____.
sinoatrial node
Increased sympathetic stimulation will _____ cardiac output.
increase
Increased venous return will _____ cardiac output.
increase
Increased heart rate will _____ cardiac output.
increase
Increased parasympathetic stimulation will _____ cardiac output.
decrease
_____ volume is the amount of blood ejected from each ventricle during a single heartbeat.
Stroke
The _____ phase in the cardiac cycle is when all the valves are closed.
systolic isovolumetric
The _____ phase in the cardiac cycle is when the mitral valve is closed and the aortic valve is open.
systolic ejection
_____ of the ventricles is represented on an electrocardiogram by the QRS complex.
Depolarization
_____ of the atria is represented on an electrocardiogram by the P-wave.
Depolarization
The _____ allows each cardiomyocyte to electrically stimulate the cells that lie adjacent to it.
intercalated discs
Heart valves control the flow of blood through the heart and prevent blood _____.
backflow
_____ veins carry oxygen-rich blood, whereas _____ arteries carry oxygen-poor blood.
- Pulmonary
- pulmonary
The inferior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood to the _____, whereas the aorta receives oxygenated blood from the _____.
- right atrium
- left ventricle
List the order of heart wall layers, from outermost to innermost:
- Epicardium
- Myocardium
- Endocardium
The _____ ventricle has to pump harder to overcome the high resistance required to pump blood into the long systematic circuit.
left
The _____ ventricle does not need to generate as much pressure since the pulmonary circuit is shorter and provides less resistance.
right
A normal heartbeat by the SA node is called the _____.
sinus rhythm
Oxygenated blood leaves the heart from the _____ atrium into the _____ ventricle, which pumps it through the _____ valve into the _____.
- left
- left
- aortic
- ascending aorta
List the structures through which electrical impulses pass, from initiation to culmination in the cardiac conduction system:
- Sinoatrial node
- Atrioventricular node
- Atrioventricular bundle branch
- Right and left bundle branches
- Purkinje fibers
A heart rate of 120 bpm would be considered _____.
tachycardia
A heart rate of 50 bpm would be considered _____.
bradycardia
The closing of the _____ valves makes the “lubb” heart sounds.
atrioventricular (AV)
The closing of the _____ valves makes the “dubb” heart sounds.
semilunar
Write the formula for cardiac output:
Heart Rate x Stroke Volume = Cardiac Output
TRUE OR FALSE:
The left atria and right ventricle contract together and then the right atria and right ventricle contract together.
False
What is the pacemaker of the heart?
Sinoatrial node (Generates an action potential)
What structures allow for action potentials stared at the SA node to transmit to all the myocardia?
Intercalated discs
What is a normal heartbeat by the SA node called?
Sinus rhythm
ACTION POTENTIAL OF A SINOATRIAL NODAL CELL:
When the voltage reaches the RMP, slow voltage-gated _____ channels open. This changes the internal charge from -60 mV to -55 mV opening up voltage-gated _____ channels. This takes the internal charge to the threshold of -40 mV opening voltage-gated _____ channels, and depolarizing the nodal cell to +1 mV. At the peak of +1 mV, _____ channels close, and voltage-gated _____ channels open causing the nodal cell to _____ to -60 mV, starting the process over.
When the voltage reaches the RMP, slow voltage-gated Na+ channels open. This changes the internal charge from -60 mV to -55 mV, opening up voltage-gated T Ca+2 channels. This takes the internal charge to the threshold of -40 mV, opening voltage-gated L Ca+2 channels, and depolarizing the nodal cell to +1 mV. At the peak of +1 mV, L Ca+2 channels close, and voltage-gated K+ channels open, causing the nodal cell to repolarize to -60 mV, starting the process over.
Identify the portion of the ECG that coincides with each of the following events:
- P-wave
- QRS
- T-wave
- P-wave: Atrial depolarization
- QRS: Ventricular depolarization/Artial repolarization
- T-wave: Ventricular repolarization
What does an ECG measure?
The cardiac conduction system.
Ventricular contraction and constriction are known as _____, whereas ventricular relaxation and expansion are known as _____.
- systole
- diastole
The phase in the cardiac cycle when the mitral valve is closed and the aortic valve is open is the _____.
systolic ejection phase
Each of the following factors will increase cardiac output, except:
a. increased parasympathetic stimulation
b. increased sympathetic stimulation
c. increased venous return
d. increased heart rate
a. increased parasympathetic stimulation
_____ is the volume of blood a ventricle pumps out during one contraction.
Stroke volume
_____ is the number of heartbeats per minute.
Heart rate
Cardiac output = _____ x _____
Heart rate x Stroke volume
A heart rate of <60 bpm is called _____.
bradycardia
A heart rate >100 bpm is called _____.
tachycardia
If you increase heart rate you will _____ cardiac output.
increase
What is the formula for cardiac output?
Heart rate x Stroke volume = Cardiac Output
What 2 systems does the hypothalamus operate in?
- Nervous system
- Endocrine system
What 3 factors control hormone release?
- Hormonal
- Humoral
- Nervous System stimulation
What are the characteristics of steroid hormones and what glands produce them?
- Are lipid-soluble
- Produced by the gonads and adrenal cortex
How does the hypothalamus control secretion of the adenohypophysis?
By secreting regulatory hormones into the hypophyseal portal system.
What is the definition of a hormone?
Chemical messengers that are released from one tissue and transported in the bloodstream to alter the activities of specific cells in other tissues.
What hormone in excess will cause gigantism?
Growth hormone
What 2 hormones and 1 enzyme does the kidney secrete?
- calcitriol; hormone
- erythropoietin; hormone
- renin; enzyme
Which gland responds in emergencies and helps the body adjust to stress?
Adrenal medulla
- releases epinephrine and norepinephrine
What glands and hormones are involved in calcium homeostasis?
Parathyroid Hormones (PTH)
- released by the parathyroid gland
Calcitonin
- released by the thyroid gland
What is the primary function of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?
Decreases the amount of water lost at the kidneys.
Compare the regulatory effects of the endocrine system and nervous system.
Endocrine System:
- effects are wide-spread an long-lasting
Nervous System:
- effects are localized and short-lived
A decrease in basal body temperature will stimulate the release of which hormone?
Thyroid hormone
Which hormone will increase blood glucose levels?
Glucagon
What are the most common causes of Type I and Type II diabetes mellites?
Type 1:
- autoimmune conditions that destroy the islets of Langerhans cells.
Type 2:
- insulin resistance developed due toa poor diet and lack of exercise.
What hormones are released from the posterior pituitary?
- Oxytocin
- Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
What are the 3 P’s of Diabetes Mellitus?
- Polyuria
- Polydipsia
- Polyphagia
