A&P Exam I Flashcards
Cort- means?
Bark, rind: adrenal cortex–outer portion of an adrenal gland.
-crin means?
To secrete: endocrine–internal secretion
diure- means?
To pass urine: diuretic–substance that promotes urine production
endo- means?
Inside: endocrine gland–gland that internally secretes into a body fluid.
exo- means?
outside: exocrine gland–gland that secretes to the outside through a duct
horm- means?
Impetus, impulse: hormone–substance that a cell secretes that affects another cell.
hyper- means?
Above: hyperthyroidism–condition resulting from an above-normal secretion of thyroid hormone
hypo- means?
Above: hypothyroidism–condition resulting from a below-normal secretion of thyroid hormone.
lact- means?
Milk: prolactin–hormone that promotes milk production
med- means?
Middle: adrenal medulla–inner portion of an adrenal gland
para- means?
beside: parathyroid glands–set of glands on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland.
toc- means?
Birth: oxytocin–hormone that stimulates the uterine muscles to contract during childbirth.
-tropic means?
Influencing: adrenocorticotropic hormone–a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the adrenal cortex.
Vas- means?
Vessel: vasopressin–hormone that helps maintain blood pressure by constricting blood vessels.
Regulating the functions of the human body is achieved by the partnering of the nervous system and the ____________ to coordinate and execute communication throughout the body.
Endocrine
Which is more specific in terms of which cells are affected, a neurotransmitter or a hormone? What do postsynaptic cells and target cells have in common that allow them to respond to secreted chemicals?
They are equally specific because only cells with receptors, either for the neurotransmitter or the hormone, will respond.
What are the components of the endocrine system?
The endocrine system consists of organs and glands that produce hormones.
Are the components of the endocrine system anatomically connected to each other?
No
What are the major glands of the endocrine system?
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Thyroid Gland
Parathyroid Gland
Adrenal Glands
Pancreas
Pineal Gland
Thymus
Reproductive glands (testes and ovaries)
In the endocrine system, what organs also contain cells which produce hormones?
The liver, heart, kidneys, and gastrointestinal tract.
What determines whether a cell is a target cell for a particular hormone?
Target cells contain protein or glycoprotein receptors that are specific for particular hormones. The receptors contain unique binding sites for the particular hormone.
Target cells contain _________ or _________ receptors that are specific for particular hormones.
Protein; glycoprotein
How do paracrine and autocrine secretions function differently than traditionally defined hormones?
Hormones are released into the interstitial fluid, diffuse into the blood, and are transported to their target cells elsewhere in the body. Paracrine and autocrine substances can be called “local hormones;” they do not enter the bloodstream; instead they act as local messengers. Paracrine substances act on cells in the vicinity of the cells that produce them. Autocrine substances act on the cells that produce them.
Explain how the nervous and endocrine systems are alike and how they differ.
The systems are alike in that they both regulate many bodily processes, and communicate via chemical messengers. However, the nervous system works more quickly than the endocrine system, and its effects are more short-lived. The endocrine system takes longer to begin acting, and its effects last longer. The nervous system communicates through neurons secreting neurotransmitters into synapses. The endocrine system consists of glandular epithelial cells, which secrete hormones into the body fluids; the hormones then circulate through the blood to find their target cells.
State some general functions of hormones.
Hormones regulate metabolic activities, water and electrolyte balance, growth, the response to stress, and various aspects of the physiology of many blood cells.
How are hormones chemically classified?
In general, hormones can be grouped as either steroids or non-steroids.
From what specific compound are prostaglandins synthesized?
Prostaglandins are produced from a fatty acid called arachidonic acid, which is found in cell membranes.
How does a steroid hormone act on its target cells?
A steroid hormone penetrates the cell membrane, and binds to a particular receptor protein inside the cell. The hormone-receptor complex binds to a specific region of a DNA molecule, and activates gene transcription in the nucleus, which results in the production of a certain protein. The new protein accomplishes the function of the hormone, by acting either as an enzyme, a transport protein, or a hormone receptor.
How does a nonsteroid hormone act on its target cells?
A nonsteroid hormone binds to a cell membrane receptor, since it cannot penetrate the membrane. In many cases, the hormone receptor complex activates a G protein in the membrane. The G protein activates adenylate cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP. cAMP, acting as a second messenger, stimulates protein kinases, which then add phosphate groups derived from ATP to another substrate molecules. These phosphorylated substrates are now activated, and ready to perform the hormone’s action, by inducing a variety of cellular processes.
What is a second messenger?
A second messenger is a chemical that stimulates cellular changes in response to the binding of a nonsteroid hormone to its receptor. cAMP is an example of a second messenger. These messengers are necessary, because nonsteroid hormones cannot penetrate the cell membrane; they carry out the effects of the hormone.
What are prostaglandins?
Prostaglandins are a group of lipids produced from a fatty acid, called arachidonic acid, found in cell membranes. They are produced by many types of cells. They are potent, produced in small quantities, used in local areas (which makes them paracrine substances), and then quickly inactivated.
Describe one function of prostaglandins.
Some prostaglandins regulate cellular responses to hormones by activating or inactivating adenylate cyclase in cell membranes. This regulates the production of cAMP.
List the effects of prostaglandins.
Various prostaglandins cause relaxation of airway and blood vessel smooth muscle, contraction of uterine smooth muscle, secretion of hormones from the adrenal cortex, and inhibition of hydrochloric acid secretion in the stomach. They also affect blood pressure, sodium and water movement in the kidneys, male and female reproductive processes, and inflammation.
How does the nervous system help regulate hormonal secretions?
The hypothalamus (in the brain) regulates anterior pituitary hormone secretion by sending releasing or release-inhibiting hormones directly to the glandular cells of the anterior pituitary. It also sends nerve impulses to the posterior pituitary gland, to regulate the secretion of ADH and oxytocin. The nervous system also activates some endocrine glands directly via nerve impulses; for example, sympathetic impulses from the brain regulate the secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla.
How does a negative feedback system control hormonal secretion?
Negative feedback mechanisms maintain blood levels of hormones appropriate for maintaining homeostasis, by sensing the level of the hormone in the blood or by sensing an effect the hormone has on the internal environment. When the level of a particular hormone gets too high, a negative feedback mechanism can slow down or stop the synthesis of that hormone. If the level is too low, negative feedback will not occur, and the hormone will begin to produce again.
Where is the pituitary gland located?
At the base of the brain. It is attached to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk, or infundibulum. It occupies the sella turcica, a depression in the sphenoid bone.
List the hormones that the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland secrete.
Then anterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH). The posterior lobe secretes 2 hormones that are synthesized in the hypothalamus; these are antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin (OT).
Explain how the hypothalamus controls the actions of the posterior and anterior lobes of the pituitary gland
The hypothalamus controls anterior pituitary activity by secreting and releasing and release-inhibiting hormones into the hypophyseal portal veins. These veins branch to form a network of capillaries that runs between these glands. The hypothalamic hormones act on their target cells in the anterior pituitary gland, to stimulate or inhibit release of their hormones. The hormones released by the posterior pituitary gland are produced by the hypothalamus, and stored in the posterior pituitary. The hypothalamus controls posterior pituitary secretion by sending nerve impulses down the pituitary stalk to the storage site.
How does growth hormone affect the cellular metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins?
Growth hormone (GH) stimulates amino acid uptake by cells, which provides amino acids for protein synthesis; this is vital in the growth process. It also increases fat catabolism for energy, and decreases the use of glucose by most cells. GH causes the liver to release glucose into the blood, which provides glucose for neurons.
What are the functions of prolactin?
In females, prolactin (PRL) causes development of the mammary glands and maintains milk production after childbirth. In males, no normal function has been determined.
How is TSH secretion regulated?
Secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is regulated by two methods. TSH secretion is increased by the release of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus. TSH secretion is also regulated by negative feedback; when the level of thyroid hormones (TH) reaches a certain level, TSH secretion is inhibited.
What is the function of ACTH?
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) controls the slynthesis and release of cortisol, adrenal androgens, and other related hormones from the adrenal cortex.
What is a gonadotropin?
A substance that affects the gonads (testes or ovaries). The two gonadotropins secreted by the anterior pituitary gland are follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
Describe the functions of FSH and LH in a female and in a male.
LH stimulates the secretion of sex hormones from the gonads in both males and females, and is essential for the release of the oocyte from the ovaries (ovulation). FSH stimulates secretion of sex hormones in females and contributes to the development of the gametes (sperm and oocytes) in both sexes.
What is the function of ADH?
It acts on the kidneys to promote water retention by decreasing urine volume. This ensures that the concentration of body fluids remains in the homeostatic level. ADH also increases blood pressure by constricting blood vessels; this explains why ADH is also called vasopressin.
How is the secretion of ADH controlled?
Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus monitor changes in the osmotic pressure in the body fluids. When the osmoreceptors sense increased osmotic pressure, due to water loss or dehydration, ADH is released from the posterior pituitary gland, where it is stored. ADH causes the kidneys to excrete less water in the urine, and retain water in the body fluids. In cases of dilution of the body fluids due to drinking too much water, ADH secretion would be inhibited. Blood volume also influences the secretion of ADH. When blood volume is high, stretching of blood vessel walls is detected by volume receptors, which alert the hypothalamus; this results in ADH secretion being inhibited. If blood volume is too low, fewer impulses are sent to the hypothalamus, resulting in an increase in ADH secretion.
What effects does oxytocin produce in females?
In females, oxytocin has a weak antidiuretic effect. It also causes uterine smooth muscle contractions during childbirth and contraction of myoepithelial cells in the breasts for milk ejection during nursing. Oxytocin also plays a role in bonding between a mother and baby, and between sex partners.
The endocrine system, along with the __________, regulates functions of the body.
Nervous system
The endocrine system, along with the nervous system, regulates functions of the body to maintain ___________
Homeostasis
The endocrine system, along with the nervous system, regulates functions of the body to maintain homeostasis, and coordinates __________
Communication
What is the only organ system in the body where the organs are not anatomically connected?
The endocrine system
Name the major endocrine glands.
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Pineal gland
Thymus
Ovaries and Testes (reproductive glands)
Adrenal Gland
Hypothalamus
Ovaries
Pancreas
Parathyroid Glands
Pineal Gland
Pituitary Gland
Testes Gland
Thymus
Thyroid Gland
The two types of glands:
Endocrine and Exocrine
Endocrine glands are _________; they secrete hormones directly into the body fluids.
Ductless
What does “endocrine” mean?
Internal secretion
Hormones act only on _________ that contain receptors for them
Target cells
If a cell does not have _______ for the hormone, the cells is NOT affected by the hormone.
Receptors
________ glands are glands that secrete into ducts or tubes that lead to a body surface.
Exocrine
Exocrine glands secrete ________
Externally
_________ glands deliver products directly to a specific site; action does not depend on receptors.
Exocrine
What type of gland delivers products directly to a specific site?
Exocrine glands
What kind of gland’s action does not depend on receptors?
Exocrine glands
What kind of gland secretes hormones directly into the body fluids?
Endocrine glands
What is the main difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?
Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the body fluids. Exocrine glands secrete into ducts or tubes that lead to a body surface.
Besides endocrine and exocrine glands, other cells secrete ___________ internally, called “local hormones.”
chemical messengers
What are the chemical messengers called which are secreted by cells but are not actually hormones?
Local hormones
What are the two types of local hormones?
Paracrine and autocrine secretions
What is the difference between paracrine and autocrine secretions?
Paracrine secretions affect nearby cells. Autocrine secretions affect only the cells that secrete them.
Both the nervous and endocrine systems function in ___________
Communication
Both the nervous and endocrine systems communicate via:
Chemicals that bind to receptor molecules
What do the nervous and endocrine systems have in common?
They both function in communication via chemicals that bind to receptor molecules
The nervous system releases _________ into synapses
Neurotransmitters
The nervous system releases neurotransmitters into __________
Synapses
The ________ system releases neurotransmitters into synapses
Nervous
The ___________ system secretes hormones into bloodstream
Endocrine
The endocrine system secretes ________ into the bloodstream
Hormones
Where does the endocrine system secrete hormones into?
The bloodstream
Which responds faster? The nervous or endocrine system?
The nervous system
Which system’s effects can last longer? The endocrine or nervous system?
The endocrine system
While the Nervous system responds ________, the endocrine system’s effects can ___________.
Faster; last longer
What are the cells of the nervous system?
Neurons
What are the cells of the endocrine system?
Glandular epithelium
What are the chemical signals of the nervous system?
Neurotransmitters
What are the chemical signals of the endocrine system?
Hormones
What is the specificity of action for the nervous system?
Receptors on the postsynaptic cell
What is the specificity of action for the endocrine system?
Receptors on target cells
What is the speed of onset for the nervous system?
1 second
What is the speed of onset for the endocrine system?
Seconds to hours
What is the duration of action for the nervous system?
Very brief unless neuronal activity continues
What is the duration of action for the endocrine system?
May be brief or may last for days even if secretion ceases
When a neuron conducts an impulse, the neurotransmitter is released into the:
Synaptic cleft
When a neuron conducts an impulse, what type of cell responds?
Post-synaptic cell
When glandular cells secrete hormones into the bloodstream, what type of cells respond?
Target cells
All of the hormones MADE and RELEASED from the hypothalamus are either __________ or _________ hormones
Releasing; inhibiting
All hormones made and released from the hypothalamus control the production and release of hormones from the ___________ gland.
Anterior pituitary
Where do the hormones come from that control the production and release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland?
Hypothalamus
What do the hormones released from the hypothalamus control?
The production and release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland
What are the two hormones made by the hypothalamus?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin
What are the two hormones that are made by the hypothalamus, but RELEASED by the posterior pituitary gland
Antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
What gland releases ADH and oxytocin?
Posterior pituitary gland
Which gland releases hormones that travel to the peripheral endocrine glands?
Anterior pituitary gland
What are the peripheral endocrine glands?
Thyroid, pancreas, etc.
Why does the anterior pituitary gland release hormones to travel to the peripheral endocrine glands?
To stimulate or inhibit the release of specific hormones such as epinephrine, testosterone, estrogen, thyroxine, etc.
What are the hormones from which the hypothalamus is the source?
Corticotropin-releasing hormone
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Somatostatin
Growth-hormone releasing hormone
Prolactin releasing-hormone
Prolactin-releasing factor
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
What is CRH?
Corticotropin-releasing hormone
What is GnRH
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
What is SS?
Somatostatin
What is GHRH
Growth hormone-releasing hormone
What is PIH?
Prolactin-release-inhibiting hormone
What is PRF?
Prolactin-releasing factor
What is TRH?
Thyrotropin-releasing hormoen
What is GnRH also known as?
LHRH - Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone
What is SS (somatostatin) also known as?
Growth hormone release-inhibiting hormone (GHRIH)
What are the hormones sourced from the anterior pituitary gland?
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Growth hormone
Luteinizing hormone
Prolactin
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
What is ACTH?
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
What is FSH?
Follicle-stimulating hormone
What is GH?
Growth hormone
What is LH?
Luteinizing hormone
What is PRL?
Prolactin
What is TSH?
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
What is the synonym for corticotropin?
ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone
What is the synonym for follitropin?
FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone
What is the synonym for somatotropin (STH)?
GH, growth hormone
What is the synonym for lutropin, interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH)?
LH, luteinizing hormone
What is the synonym for thyrotropin?
TSH, thyroid-stimulating hormone
What is the source of CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone)
Hypothalamus
What is the source of GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone)
Hypothalamus
What is the source of SS (somatostatin)
Hypothalamus
What is the source of GHRH (growth hormone-releasing hormone)
Hypothalamus
What is the source of PIH (prolactin-release-inhibiting hormone)
Hypothalamus
What is the source of PRF (thyrotropin-releasing hormone)
Hypothalamus
What is the source of TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone)
Hypothalamus
What is the source of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
Anterior pituitary gland
What is the source of FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)
Anterior pituitary gland
What is the source of GH (growth hormone)
Anterior pituitary gland
What is the source of LH (luteinizing hormone)
Anterior pituitary gland
What is the source of PRL (prolactin)
Anterior pituitary gland
What is the source of TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone)
Anterior pituitary gland
What are the hormones released by the posterior pituitary gland?
Antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin are MADE in the _________, but RELEASED in the:
hypothalamus; posterior pituitary gland
What is the synonym for vasopressin?
ADH, antidiuretic hormone
What are the three hormones made in the thyroid gland?
Calcitonin, thyroxine, and triiodothyronine
What is the abbreviation for thyroxine?
T4
What is the abbreviation for triiodothyronine?
T3
What is the synonym for triiodothyronine (T3)?
Tetraiodothyronine
What is the hormone made by the parathyroid gland?
Parathyroid hormone
What is the abbreviation for parathyroid hormone?
PTH
What is the synonym for PTH (parathyroid hormone)
Parathormone
What hormones are made by the adrenal medulla?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
What is the abbreviation for epinephrine?
EPI
What is the abbreviation for norepinephrine?
NE
What is the synonym for epinephrine?
Adrenalin
What is the synonym for norepinephrine?
Noradrenalin
What are the hormones made by the adrenal cortex?
Aldosterone
Cortisol
What is the synonym for cortisol?
Hyrdocortisone
What are the hormones made by the pancreas?
Glucagon
Insulin
Somatostatin
What is the abbreviation for somatostatin?
SS
Hormones are released into:
extracellular fluid
Hormones diffuse into:
Blood
Hormones are released into __ and then diffuse into __
Extracellular fluid; blood
The method of hormone transport through blood depends on whether the hormone is ______ or ______
Lipid-soluble; water-soluble
______ are very powerful substances in low concentrations
Hormones
Hormones are ______ compounds
Organic
What are the two general types of hormones?
Steroid or steroid-like
Describe steroids?
Lipids containing complex rings of carbon and hydrogen atoms
All steroid hormones are produced from what?
Cholesterol
What are a few examples of steroid hormones?
Sex hormones (testosterone and estrogen) and adrenal cortex hormones (cortisol and aldosterone)
What are the four types of nonsteroid hormones (chemically)
Amines
Proteins
Peptides
Glycoproteins
_______ are derived from tyrosine
Amines
_______ are composed of long chains of amino acids
Proteins
____ are short chains of amino acids
Peptides
______ are carbohydrates joined to proteins
Glycoproteins
A hormone derived from tyrosine is an
Amine
A hormone composed of long chains of amino acids is
Proteins
A hormone composed of short chains of amino acids is a
Peptide
A hormone composed of carbohydrates joined to proteins is
Glycoproteins
What are some examples of nonsteroid hormones?
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, thyroxine (amines), growth hormone (proteins), ADH, oxytocin (peptides), or TSH (glycoproteins)
Are steroid or steroid-like hormones composed of lipids or amino acids/peptides?
Lipids
Are non-steroid hormones composed of lipids or amino acids/peptides?
Amino acids/peptides
A hormone made out of 9 amino acids is a
peptide
A hormone composed of 30 amino acids is a
Protein
A hormone made from the amino acid tyrosine is called a
Amine
Amines are formed from?
Amino acids
peptides are formed from
Amino acids
proteins are formed from
Amino acids
Glycoproteins are formed from
Protein and carbohydrate
Steroids are formed from
Cholesteral
What are examples of amine hormones?
Norepinephrine and epinephrine
What are some examples of peptide hormones?
ADH, OT, TRH, SS, GnRH
What are some examples of protein hormones?
PTH, GH, PR
What are some examples of glycoprotein hormones?
FSH, LH, TSH
What are some examples of steroid hormones?
Estrogens, testosterone, aldosterone, cortisol
Only 4 hormones are _______, all the rest are protein based
Steroids
How will the structure (protein based or steroid/lipid based) affect how the hormone crosses the plasma membrane?
Amino acid derived hormones and polypeptide hormones are not lipid-derived (lipid-soluble) and therefore cannot diffuse through the plasma membrane of cells, so they bind to receptors on the outer surface of the plasma membrane. Steroid/lipid-based hormones CAN diffuse through the plasma membrane.
Do cortisol, norepinephrine, parathyroid hormone, oxytocin, and prostaglandin all have the same structure?
No; they are all shaped differently according to their function and purpose.
Are cortisol, norepinephrine, parathyroid hormone, oxytocin, and prostaglandin all based on the same organic molecule?
No. They are formed from different organic molecules.
When it comes to hormones, does structure = function?
YES. It is similar to a “lock and key” system; certain structures will only “lock” into certain receptors.
How does the structure of each hormone affect their ability to cross the plasma membrane?
Hormones that are not lipid-derived will NOT pass through the lipid-soluble bilayer of the plasma membrane; they bind to receptors on the outer layer of the cell instead.
Hormones may alter ______ activity
Enzyme
Hormones may change the rate of ________ of a substance.
Membrane transport
Hormones may alter _______ activity
Enzyme
Hormones deliver messages by binding to their______ on/in target cell
Receptors
Hormones are powerful in ______ quantities
Small
Hormones can cause changes in target cells even in extremely _____ concentrations
Low
The number of ________ determines the strength of hormone response
Receptors
The number of receptors can be _______ to alter the response
Changed
The increase in number of receptors on target cells, in response to a decrease in hormone level
Upregulation
The decrease in number of receptors on target cells, due to an increase in hormone level
Downregulation
Steroid hormones have poor ______-solubility
Water
What are steroid hormones transported by?
Carrier hormones
What type of hormones are transported through blood bound to plasma proteins (carrier proteins)
Steroid hormones
_______ hormones can diffuse through the lipid bilayer of cell membranes and bind directly to receptors in the nucleus.
Steroid
What type of hormones can diffuse through the lipid bilayer of cell membranes and bind directly to receptors in the nucleus?
Steroid
What type of hormones cause transcription of particular genes in DNA?
Steroid hormones
Steroid hormones cause _______ of particular genes in DNA
Transcription
What leads to the action of steroid hormones?
Protein synthesis (translation)
What is the first step in the sequence of steroid hormone action?
Endocrine gland secretes the steroid hormone
What is the second step in the sequence of steroid hormone action?
Blood carries the hormone molecules (often weakly bound to transport protein) throughout the body.
What is the third step in the sequence of steroid hormone action?
Unbound steroid hormones diffuse through the target cell membranes and enter the cytoplasm or nucleus.
What is the fourth step in the sequence of steroid hormone action?
Hormone combines with a receptor molecule in the cytoplasm or nucleus
What is the fifth step in the sequence of steroid hormone action?
Steroid hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA in the nucleus and promotes transcription of messenger RNA.
What is the sixth step in the sequence of steroid hormone action?
Messenger RNA enters the cytoplasm and directs protein synthesis
What is the last (seventh) step in the sequence of steroid hormone action?
Newly synthesized proteins produce the steroid hormone’s specific effects
What type of hormone CANNOT penetrate the lipid bilayer of cell membranes?
Nonsteroid hormones
What type of hormones bind to receptors on the target cell plasma membrane?
Nonsteroid hormones
What type of hormone is considered a “first messenger”?
Nonsteroid hormones
The chemical that induces changes leading to hormone’s effect is considered a what?
Second messenger
What is cAMP?
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate
Many hormones us what as a second messenger?
cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate)
The entire process of chemical communication, from outside cells to inside, is called what?
Signal transduction
What is the first step in the sequence of actions of nonsteroid hormones using cAMP?
Endocrine gland secretes nonsteroid hormone
What is the second step in the sequence of actions of nonsteroid hormones using cAMP?
Blood carries the hormone molecules throughout the body
What is the third step in the sequence of actions of nonsteroid hormones using cAMP?
Hormone combines with receptor site on membrane of its target cell, activating G protein
What is the fourth step in the sequence of actions of nonsteroid hormones using cAMP?
Adenylate cyclase molecules are activated in target cell’s membrane
What is the fifth step in the sequence of actions of nonsteroid hormones using cAMP?
Adenylate cyclase converts ATP into cyclic AMP
What is the sixth step in the sequence of actions of nonsteroid hormones using cAMP?
Cyclic AMP activates protein kinases
What is the seventh step in the sequence of actions of nonsteroid hormones using cAMP?
Protein kinases activate protein substrates in the cell that change metabolic processes
What is the last step in the sequence of actions of nonsteroid hormones using cAMP?
Cellular changes produce the hormone’s effects
Why are hormones generally abused by athletes to improve performance?
To increase muscular strength
What are some of the harmful effects that come from abusing steroids to improve athletic performance?
Decreased natural testosterone production
Stunted growth
Breast development in males
Male sexual characteristics in females
Damage to kidneys, liver, or heart
Increase in LDL cholesterol
Psychiatric problems
What is HGH specifically used for when abused by athletes?
To enlarge muscles
What and why is the hormone commonly used instead of, or along with, steroids when it comes to athletic abuse of hormones?
HGH (human growth hormone); to enlarge muscles
What steroid is often abused to increase the number of red blood cells and oxygen delivery to muscles?
Erythropoietin
What is the steroid used to treat certain forms of anemia, bus using it to improve athletic performance is not advised because it can lead to heart attack and death
Erythropoietin
Hormone secretion is precisely regulated and is primarily controlled by what type of feedback mechanisms?
Negative feedback
How long do the effects of hormone secretion generally last?
Can be short-lived ( a few minutes) or may last for days.
Some _______ are excreted in the urine after exerting their effects
Hormones
Hormones can be broken down by ______, mainly from the liver, to stop their effects
enzymes
What is the most common type of homeostatic mechanism?
Negative feedback
What type of feedback prevents sudden, severe changes in the body?
Negative feedback
What are some examples of negative feedback in the body?
Control of: body temperature, blood pressure, glucose level in blood.
Rising/increasing level of a hormone leads to a decrease in hormone secretion describes….
Negative feedback
What is the main control of hormone secretion?
Negative feedback
Control mechanism in which rising level of a hormone leads to an increase in secretion; used in small number of cases of hormone control, mainly in reproductive system
Positive feedback
What gland lies at the base of the brain?
Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland is located where?
Sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
The pituitary gland is controlled by what?
The brain
The pituitary gland is considered part of what system?
The nervous system
The pituitary gland is attached to the what?
Hypothalamus
What is the pituitary gland connected to the hypothalamus by?
The pituitary stalk
What is another name for the pituitary stalk that connects the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus
Infundibulum
What are the two distinct portions of the pituitary gland?
Anterior and posterior lobe
What is the name for the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
Adenohypophysis
What is the name for the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
Neurohypophysis
In the _______ gland, secretion from 2 lobes is controlled by different methods by the hypothalamus
Pituitary
What is the small intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland called?
Pars intermedia
What part of the pituitary gland produces melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
The small intermediate lobe (pars intermedia)
What type of hormone does the small intermediate lobe (pars intermedia) of the pituitary gland produce?
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
What hormone starts melanin production?
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland by what two types of regulation?
Anterior lobe and posterior lobe regulation
How is the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland controlled by the hypothalamus?
Hypothalamic releasing hormone (or release-inhibiting hormones) are transported to the anterior lobe through the hypophyseal portal veins
The hypophyseal portal veins are an example of what type of system?
Portal system
What type of hormones are transported to the anterior lobe through the hypophyseal portal veins?
Hypothalamic releasing hormones
What is another name for hypothalamic releasing hormones?
Release-inhibiting hormones)
How is the posterior lobe of the hypothalamus regulated?
Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus travel along axons to posterior lobe through the infundibulum
_________ from the hypothalamus travel along axons to posterior lobe of the pituitary gland through the infundibulum
Nerve impulses
Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus travel along axons to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland through the ___________-
Infundibulum
The hypothalamus, which is an endocrine gland, controls hormone secretion from peripheral endocrine glands via what?
3-step pathways
What are the three 3-step pathways used by the hypothalamus to control hormone secretion from peripheral endocrine glands?
Releasing (or release-inhibiting) hormone, anterior pituitary hormone, and peripheral endocrine gland
What from the hypothalamus acts on specific hormone-secreting cells in the anterior pituitary gland?
Releasing (or release-inhibiting) hormone
What acts on cells in a peripheral endocrine gland to stimulate its secretion?
Anterior pituitary hormoen
What secretes its hormone, which exerts effects on target cells?
Peripheral endocrine gland
What are the major anterior pituitary hormones?
Growth hormone (GH)
Prolactin (PRL)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Hormone which Stimulates cells to enlarge and divide rapidly, increases amino acid uptake and protein synthesis, decreases rate of carbohydrate
usage, increases rate of fat usage
Growth hormone (somatotropin)
Hormone which Promotes milk production in females, uncertain function in males
Prolactin
Hormone which Stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones (T3 and
T4) from thyroid gland
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Hormone which Stimulates secretion of cortisol and other
glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Hormone which Causes growth and development of ovarian
follicles in females, sperm production in males
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Hormone which Causes ovulation in females, sex hormone production in
both genders
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
What is hypopituitary dwarfism caused by?
deficiency of human growth hormone (HGH) during childhood
Characteristics of hypopituitary dwarfism?
Short stature, but body proportions and mental development are normal
In hypopituitary dwarfism, HGH treatment must start before bones completely _______ to be effective
ossify
What is caused by oversecretion of GH during childhood?
Gigantism
Characteristics of gigantism
Height may exceed 8 feet, may have other metabolic problems
Gigantism is often caused by what?
Pituitary tumor
What is caused by oversecretion of GH during adulthood, after epiphyseal
ossification
Acromegaly
Characteristics of acromegaly
No increase in height, but bones thicken
Acromegaly causes enlargement of…
Tongue, nose, hands, feet, jaw, heart, thyroid gland
_________ lobe of pituitary gland consists of nerve fibers from hypothalamus and
neuroglia, unlike glandular epithelium of anterior lobe
Posterior
Posterior lobe of _______ gland consists of nerve fibers from hypothalamus and
neuroglia, unlike glandular epithelium of anterior lobe
Pituitary
Posterior lobe of pituitary gland consists of _______ from hypothalamus and
neuroglia, unlike glandular epithelium of anterior lobe
Nerve fibers
Posterior lobe of pituitary gland consists of nerve fibers from _________ and
neuroglia, unlike glandular epithelium of anterior lobe
Hypothalamus
Posterior lobe of pituitary gland consists of nerve fibers from hypothalamus and
________, unlike glandular epithelium of anterior lobe
Neuroglia
What are the two hormones made in the hypothalamus?
ADH and oxytocin
How are ADH and oxytocin transported to the posterior pituitary gland?
Via the pituitary stalk (infundibulum)
Which posterior pituitary hormone Decreases urine production by reducing volume of H2O the kidneys excrete
ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
Which posterior pituitary hormone causes vasoconstriction to increase blood pressure
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Which posterior pituitary hormone causes muscle contraction in the uterine wall during childbirth?
Oxytocin
Which posterior pituitary hormone causes milk ejection during lactation?
Oxytocin
Which posterior pituitary hormone has no proven function in males, but may help with sperm movement or sexual response?
Oxytocin
Hormone which Stimulates increase in size and rate of
division of body cells; enhances
movement of amino acids through
membranes; promotes growth of long
bones
Growth hormone (GH)
hormone which Sustains milk production after birth;
amplifies the effect of LH in males
Prolactin (PRL)
Which hormone Controls secretion of hormones from the
thyroid gland
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Which hormone Controls secretion of certain hormones
from the adrenal cortex
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Which hormone Promotes development of egg-
containing follicles in ovaries; stimulates
follicular cells to secrete estrogen; in
males, stimulates production of sperm
cells
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Which hormone Promotes secretion of male and female
sex hormones; releases egg cell in
females
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
What is the source of control for growth hormone (GH)
Secretion inhibited by somatostatin (SS)
and stimulated by growth hormone-
releasing hormone (GHRH) from the
hypothalamus
What is the source of control for prolactin (PRL)?
Secretion inhibited by prolactin inhibiting
hormone (PIH) from the hypothalamus
What is the source of control for thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)?
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
from the hypothalamus
What is the source of control for adrenocorcitotropic hormone (ACTH)?
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
from the hypothalamus
What is the source of control for follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)?
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) from the hypothalamus
What is the source of control for luteinizing hormone (LH)?
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) from the hypothalamus
What hormone Causes kidneys to reduce water
excretion; may help maintain blood
pressure
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
What hormone Contracts smooth muscle in the uterine
wall; forces liquid from the milk glands
into the milk ducts, ejects milk
Oxytocin
What is the source of control for antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Hypothalamus in response to changes
in body fluid concentration and blood
volume
What is the source of control for oxytocin (OT)?
Hypothalamus in response to stretching
uterine and vaginal walls and
stimulation of breasts
The thyroid gland consists of how many lobes?
Two lateral lobes
The two lateral lobes of the thyroid gland are connected by an
Isthmus
The ______ gland lies just below the larynx, anterior and lateral to the trachea
Thyroid gland
Where is the thyroid gland located?
Anterior and lateral to the trachea?
The thyroid has a special ability to remove what from blood?
Iodine
What 3 hormones does the thyroid produce?
T4 (thyroxine)
T3 (triiodothyronine)
Calcitonin
Thyroid is composed of round secretory units called what?
Follicles
Each follicle in the thyroid is surrounded by a single layer of what type of cells?
Follicular
What fills the follicle cavities of the thyroid gland?
Viscous colloid
What type of cells lie outside the follicles of the thyroid gland?
Extrafollicular (C) cells
What cells in the thyroid produce calcitonin?
Extrafollicular (C) cells
What hormone Increases rate of energy
release from
carbohydrates; increases
rate of protein synthesis;
accelerates growth;
necessary for normal
nervous system
maturation
Thyroxine (T4)
What hormone Increases rate of energy
release from
carbohydrates; increases
rate of protein synthesis;
accelerates growth;
necessary for normal
nervous system
maturation, but is much more potent
Triiodothyronine (T3)
What hormone Lowers blood calcium and
phosphate ion
concentrations by
inhibiting release of
calcium and phosphate
ions from bones and by
increasing the rate at
which calcium and
phosphate ions are
deposited in bones;
increases excretion of
calcium by the kidneys
Calcitonin
What is the source of control for thyroxine (T4)?
TSH from the anterior pituitary gland
What is the source of control for calcitonin?
Elevated blood calcium ion concentration, digestive hormones
What are the two hyperthyroid conditions?
Hyperthyroidism, and graves disease
What hyperthyroid condition results in High metabolic rate, sensitivity to heat, restlessness,
hyperactivity, weight loss, protruding eyes, goiter
Hyperthyroidism
What hyperthyroidism condition results in Autoantibodies (against self) bind TSH receptors on thyroid
cell membranes, mimicking action of TSH, overstimulating
gland (hyperthyroidism); exopthalmia (protrusion of the eyes)
and goiter
Graves disease
What are the four hypothyroid conditions?
Hashimoto disease, hypothyroidism (infantile), hypothyroidism (adult), and simple goiter
What hypothyroid disease results in Autoantibodies (against self) destroy thyroid cells, resulting in
hypothyroidism
Hashimoto disease
What hypothyroid disease results in Stunted growth, abnormal bone formation, intellectual
disability, sluggishness
Hypothyroidism (infantile)
What hypothyroidism disease results in Low metabolic rate, sensitivity to cold, sluggishness, poor
appetite, swollen tissues, mental dullness
Hypothyroidism (adult)
What hypothyroid disease results in Deficiency of thyroid hormones due to iodine deficiency;
because no thyroid hormones inhibit pituitary release of TSH,
thyroid is overstimulated and enlarges but functions below
normal (hypothyroidism)
Simple goiter
Where are the parathyroid glands located?
Posterior surface of the thyroid gland
What is the one hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands?
Parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid hormone is also called what?
Parathormone
PTH is what?
Parathyroid hormone
PTH regulates what concentrations in the blood?
Ca+2 and PO4 -2
PTH increases blood level of what?
Calcium
PTH DECREASES what?
Phosphate
PTH acts on the ______, ______, and ______ to exert effects
Bones, kidneys, intestines
PTH acts on bones to stimulate what?
Bone resorption
PTH indirectly stimulates _________ by stimulating a step in vitamin D metabolism.
Calcium absorption
PTH stimulates calcium absorption by stimulating a step in ___________
Vitamin D metabolism
PTH acts on ________ to cause final step in production of active vitamin D.
Kidneys
PTH acts on kidneys to cause final step in production of what?
Active vitamin D
What is vitamin D also called?
Calcitriol, or Dihydroxycholecalciferol
PTH acts on the ________ to conserve calcium and excrete phosphate in urine
Kidneys
PTH acts on kidneys to conserve ______ and excrete _______ in urine
Calcium; phosphate
What are two disorders of the parathyroid gland?
Hyperparathyroidism and hypoparathyroidism
What condition results in Fatigue, muscular weakness, painful joints, altered mental
functions, depression, weight
loss, bone weakening.
Increased PTH secretion
overstimulates osteoclasts.
Hyperparathyroidism
What condition results in Muscle cramps and seizures. Decreased PTH secretion
reduces osteoclast activity,
diminishing blood calcium ion
concentration
Hypoparathyroidism
What is the cause of hyperparathyroidism?
Tumor
What is the cause of hypoparathyroidism?
Inadvertent surgical removal; injury
What is the treatment for hyperparathyroidism?
Remove tumor, correct bone deformities
What is the treatment for hypoparathyroidism?
Calcium salt injections, massive doses of vitamin D
The adrenal glands are also called what?
Suprarenal glands
The _______ glands are closely associated with the kidneys; sit like a cap on each kidney
Adrenal
_______ hormones play roles in maintaining blood sodium levels and responding to stress, and include certain sex hormones.
Adrenal
What are the two portions of the adrenal gland?
Cortex and medulla
The _______ is the outer portion of the adrenal gland
Adrenal cortex
The __________ of the adrenal gland secretes steroid hormones: aldosterone, cortisol, sex hormones
Adrenal cortex
The adrenal cortex secretes what type of hormones?
Steroid hormones
The central portion of the adrenal gland is the
Adrenal medulla
The adrenal medulla secretes what type of hormones?
Amine
The __________ of the adrenal gland secretes what type of hormones?
Amine hormones: 80% epinephrine, 20% norepinephrine
What are the three zones of the adrenal cortex?
Zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis
What is the outer zone of the adrenal cortex?
Zona glomerulosa
What does the outer zone (zona glomerulosa) of the adrenal cortex produce?
Aldosterone and other mineralocorticoids
What is the middle zone of the adrenal cortex?
Zona fasciculata
What does the middle zone (zona fasciculata) of the adrenal cortex produce?
Cortisol and other glucocorticoids
What is the inner zone of the adrenal cortex?
Zona reticularis
What does the inner zone (zona reticularis) of the adrenal cortex produce?
Male sex hormones called androgens
What is the effect of epinephrine on the heart?
Heart rate increases
Force of contraction increases
What is the effect of norepinephrine on the heart?
Heart rate increases
Force of contraction increases
What is the effect of epinephrine on the blood vessels?
Vasodilation, especially important in
skeletal muscle at onset of fight or
flight
What is the effect of norepinephrine on the blood vessels?
Vasoconstriction in skin and viscera
shifts blood flow to other areas, such
as exercising skeletal muscle
What is the effect of epinephrine on systemic blood pressure?
Some increase due to increased
cardiac output
What is the effect of norepinephrine on systemic blood pressure?
Some increase due to increased
cardiac output and vasoconstriction
(offset in some areas, such as
exercising skeletal muscle, by local
vasodilation due to other factors)
What is the effect of epinephrine on the airways?
Dilation
What is the effect of norepinephrine on the airways?
Some dilation
What is the effect of epinephrine on the reticular formation of the brainstem?
Activated
What is the effect of norepinephrine on the reticular formation of the brainstem?
Little effect
What is the effect of epinephrine on the liver?
Promotes breakdown of glycogen to glucose, increasing blood sugar level
What is the effect of norepinephrine on the liver?
Little effect on blood glucose level?
What is the effect of epinephrine on the metabolic rate?
Increases
What is the effect of norepinephrine on the metabolic rate
Increasesx
What is the action of aldosterone?
Helps regulate the concentration
of extracellular electrolytes by
conserving sodium ions and
excreting potassium ions
What is the action of cortisol?
Decreases protein synthesis,
increases fatty acid release, and
stimulates glucose synthesis from
noncarbohydrates
What is the action of adrenal androgens?
Supplement sex hormones from
the gonads; may be converted
into estrogens
What are the factors regulating secretion of aldosterone?
Plasma potassium and sodium
ion concentrations and renin-
angiotensin system
What are the factors regulating cortisol?
CRH from the hypothalamus
and adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) from the
anterior pituitary gland
What are the factors regulating secretion of adrenal androgens?
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) from the anterior
pituitary plus unknown factors
________ promotes excretion of K+ ions by the kidney
Aldosterone
_______ promotes conservation of Na+ by the kidney
Aldosterone
With aldosterone, H2O is retained along with Na+ by ______
Osmosis
What is the system that helps maintain normal blood pressure?
Renin-angiotensin system
__________, the product of the renin-angiotensin system, increases blood pressure and promotes secretion of aldosterone
Angiotensin II
What are the two disorders of the adrenal cortex?
Addison Disease and cushing syndrome
What adrenal cortex disorder is due to insufficient hormone secretion from the adrenal cortex?
Addison Disease
What disorder of the adrenal cortex results in electrolyte and glucose imbalances, dehydration, low blood pressure, fatigue, nausea, and increased skin pigmentation?
Addison Disease
________, a disorder of the adrenal cortex, Can be fatal, due to severe electrolyte imbalance
Addison disease
What disorder of the adrenal cortex is Due to hypersecretion of cortisol, because of adrenal tumor, or
excess secretion of ACTH by anterior pituitary
Cushing syndrom
What disorder of the adrenal cortex results in muscle wasting, loss of bone, elevated blood glucose, Na+
retention, H2O retention by osmosis, increased blood pressure, puffy
skin, abnormal deposition of adipose tissue in face and back
Cushing syndrome
The elongated, flattened organ, posterior to the stomach
Pancreas
In the pancreas, the _______ transports digestive juice to the duodenum
Pancreatic duct
The pancreas contains two major types of _________ tissue
Secretory
The _______ is both an endocrine and and exocrine gland
Pancreas
The ________ function of the pancreas secretes hormones into body fluids
Endocrine
The ________ function of the pancreas secretes digestive juices through pancreatic duct
Exocrine
What are the three hormones secreted from the endocrine cells (pancreatic islets or islets of langerhans)
Glucagon, insulin, and somatostatin
In the pancreas, ______ is secreted by the alpha cells; increases blood glucose
Glucagon
In the pancreas, _____ is secreted by beta cells; decreases blood glucose
Insulin
In the pancreas, _______ is secreted by delta cells; inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagon.
Somatostatin
What is the action of Glucagon?
Stimulates the liver to break down glycogen and
convert noncarbohydrates into glucose; stimulates
breakdown of fats
What is the source of control of glucagon?
Blood glucose concentration
What is the action of Insulin?
Promotes formation of glycogen from glucose, inhibits
conversion of noncarbohydrates into glucose, and
enhances movement of glucose through adipose and
muscle cell membranes, decreasing blood glucose
concentration; promotes transport of amino acids into
cells; enhances synthesis of proteins and fats
What is the source of control for insulin?
Blood glucose concentration
What is the action of somatostatin?
Helps regulate carbohydrates
What is the source of control for somatostatin?
Not determined
Metabolic disease resulting from lack of insulin or inability of cells to
recognize insulin
Diabetes Mellitus
In _________, Elevated blood glucose can damage eyes, heart, kidney, nerves
Diabetes Mellitus
__________ Results in disturbances in carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism
Diabetes Mellitus
In _________, Insulin normally promotes glucose uptake by adipose and muscle cells
Diabetes mellitus
In __________, carbohydrates cannot enter cells in normal
quantities
Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes Mellitus results in ___________, or high blood glucose
Hyperglycemia
Diabetes mellitus is also known as what
Type 1 and type 2 diabetes
In ___________, Cells turn to other sources of energy, which promotes tissue wasting
Diabetes mellitus
In _____________, Weight declines, hunger increases, fatigue increases, wounds do not
heal well, growth stops in children
Diabetes mellitus
In ____________, Glucose spills into urine (glycosuria), and H2O follows by osmosis,
leading to dehydration and thirst
Diabetes mellitus
__________ is also called juvenile or insulin-dependent; usually begins before age of 20
Type 1 diabetes mellitus
________ diabetes mellitus results in Autoimmune disease; immune system destroys beta cells of
pancreas
Type 1
_________ diabetes mellitus results in a lack of insulin production
Type 1
5 to 10% of diabetes cases are?
Type 1
_________ diabetes mellitus is also called maturity-onset or non-insulin-dependent
Type 2
90 to 95% of diabetes mellitus cases are type ___
2
In type ___ diabetes mellitus, Insulin is produced, but body cells are unable to recognize it
2
Type 2 diabetes is _______ than type 1.
Milder
Type __ diabetes Complications include coronary artery disease, nerve or retinal
damage
2
Treating type __ diabetes mellitus requires administration of insulin
1
Where is insulin obtained from for diabetes patients?
Pigs and cattle
Human insulin can be synthesized using ____________ technology
Recombinant DNA
How is human insulin synthesized?
It is produced by genetically altered bacteria
a ___________________ is being developed for type 1 diabetes.
Transdermal delivery system (skin patch)
What type of transplantation is being used in some countries to treat type 1 diabetes?
Pancreatic islet transplantation
What is typically used to treat type 2 diabetes?
Low carbohydrate, high protein diet, and regular exercise
Low carbohydrate, high protein diet is used to treat what type of diabetes?
Type 2
Regular exercise is used to treat what type of diabetes?
Type 2
What type of medication is used to treat type 2 diabetes?
Medications that increase glucose production
What type of surgery is typically used to treat type 2 diabetes?
Gastric bypass surgery
What gland is Found in brain, between cerebral hemispheres
Pineal gland
What gland Secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms (day/night
cycles)
Pineal gland
What gland is found in the mediastinum, between the lungs?
Thymus gland
What gland Secretes thymosins, which promote development of T-lymphocytes
Thymus gland
What gland plays an important role in immunity?
Thymus gland
What kind of gland has to do with: Ovaries produce estrogens and progesterone, testes produce testosterone, and placenta produces estrogens, progesterone, and a gonadotropin
Reproductive organs
Which glands produce hormones to regulate digestion?
Digestive glands
What gland Produces natriuretic peptides, to stimulate Na+ secretion in urine
Heart
What gland Produces erythropoietin, to stimulate red blood cell formation
Kidney
Survival depends on maintaining what?
Homeostasis
Factors that change the internal or external environment of the body are potentially what?
Life-threatening
Certain potentially dangerous factors can trigger a loss of what?
Homeostasis
When sensory receptors detect changes, they send nerve impulses to the what?
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus activates sympathetic nervous system and increases secretion of what type of hormone?
Adrenal hormones
Factor capable of initiating a response from the hypothalamus is called a what?
Stressor
________ is the condition produced in response to stressors
Stress
What are the two types of stress?
Psychological and physical
________ stress: danger, personal loss, anger, fear, guilt
Psychological
________ stress: temperature extremes, infection, injury, O2 deficiency
Physical
What controls the response to stress?
Hypothalamus
What is the response of the hypothalamus to stress called?
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
What are the three stages of general stress syndrome?
Alarm stage
Resistance Stage
Exhaustion Stage
What is the first characteristic of the alarm stage of GAS?
Fight or flight response
The body’s fight or flight response is __________, does not last long
Immediate
During the alarm stage of GAS, the ___________ nervous system impulses increase blood glucose and fatty
acids, heart and breathing rate, and blood pressure, dilate air passages,
shunt blood to skeletal muscles, increases epinephrine secretion
Sympathetic
What intensifies and prolongs sympathetic nervous system responses during GAS?
Epinephrine
How long does the resistance stage of GAS usually last?
Slower, longer-lasting
During the resistance stage of GAS, the CRH-ACTH-Cortisol pathway ______________-
Increases cortisol secretion
During the resistance stage of GAS, increased cortisol spares what for the brain?
Glucose
During the _________ stage of GAS, Cortisol, Glucagon, and GH mobilize energy sources for other tissues and
organs
Resistance
During the resistance stage of GAS, ADH and Renin can cause ______ retention
Water
The Exhaustion stage (final stage) of GAS begins after ______ of being in the resistance phase.
Months
In the exhaustion stage of GAS, wasting occurs due to the _________________
Depletion of nutrients in the body
During the exhaustion stage of GAS, an ______ imbalance is seen
Electrolyte
During the exhaustion stage of GAS, the ___________ is suppressed
Immune system
What causes the effects of the exhaustion stage (final stage) of GAS?
Long-term oversecretion of cortisol
The exhaustion stage (final stage) of GAS can result in what?
Death.
With age, the _________ glands decrease in size.
Endocrine
With age, ____________ and ___________ strength decreases as GH levels decline
Muscular; skeletal
With age, ________ levels increase due to slower elimination by liver and kidneys
ADH
With age, __________ levels decrease, increasing risk of steoporosis
Calcitonin
With age, _________ level changes contribute to risk of osteoporosis, especially in females.
PTH
With age, _________ resistance may develop
Insulin
With age, changes in _________ secretion affect the body clock
Melatonin
With age, __________ production declines, increasing risk of infections.
Thymosin
What is the only type of connective tissue with a liquid matrix (plasma)?
Blood
Blood _______ vital substances
Transports
Blood ________ processes for homeostasis
Regulates
Blood _________ the body (part of immunity)
Protects
Blood maintains _____________ (viscosity, pH, electrolyte composition
interstitial fluid
Blood distributes what?
Heat
Blood is about what percent of body weight?
8%
Adult blood volume is about how many liters in a female?
4 to 5
Adult blood volume is how many liters in a male?
5 to 6 liters
Blood cells form mostly in what?
Red bone marrow
Blood cells are called what?
Formed elements
What are the three formed elements?
Red blood cells (RBCs)
White blood cells (WBCs)
Platelets (cell fragments important for blood clotting)
Formed elements make up what percentage of blood?
45%
Plasma makes up what percentage of blood?
55%
Platelets make up what percentage of formed elements?
4.8%
Red blood cells make up what percentage of formed elements?
95.1%
White blood cells make up what percentage of formed elements?
0.1%
_________ in lab is used to detect blood abnormalities
In a centrifuged blood sample
Blood draw
What are the components of a centrifuged blood sample?
Plasma, RBCs, WBCs and platelets
________ is a Clear, straw-colored fluid matrix of blood
Plasma
Where is plasma found in a centrifuge tube?
the top
Where are RBCs found in a centrifuge tube?
Bottom
What is the percentage of RBCs called?
Hematocrit (HCT)
What makes up less than 1% of blood volume?
WBCs
Where are white blood cells and platelets found in a centrifuge tube?
“buffy coat” in the middle
A set of specific safety measures taken by healthcare workers to
prevent transmission of bloodborne infectious pathogens in the
workplace
Universal precautions
Mainly used for HIV, Hepatitis B virus, and added hepatitis C virus
later, but applies to others too
Universal precautions
_________ means that it is assumed that any patient may have been
exposed to bloodborne pathogens
Universal
Estimated that 4 to 7% of new cases of infectious disease are
transmitted by what?
Unsafe injections
What are the specific recommendations to prevent infection?
PPE, use of fume hoods and sharps containers, and safe workplace practices such as hand-washing
What is the origin of formed elements called?
Hematopoiesis
Blood cells originate in?
Red marrow
What type of cells do blood cells originate from?
Hematopoietic stem cells
What is another name for hematopoietic stem cells
Hemocytoblasts
Hematopoietic stem cells give rise to what?
More stem cells and more specialized or differentiated cells in response to hematopoietic growth factors
What are two types of stem cells hematopoietic stem cells give rise to?
Lymphoid stem cells and myeloid stem cells
What type of stem cells give rise to lymphocytes?
Lymphoid stem cells
What type of stem cells give rise to all other types of formed elements: Red blood
cells, other types of white blood cells, and platelets
Myeloid stem cells
RBCs are also called?
Erythrocytes
What shape are RBCs
Biconcave disc shape
RBCs consist of one-third _________, which transports oxygen
hemoglobin
What transports oxygen?
Hemoglobin
_____________ means with O2
Oxyhemoglobin
____________ means without O2
Deoxyhemoglobin
RBCs lack what?
Nuclei and mitochondria
RBCs cannot ______ (no nucleus)
Divide
RBCs produce ATP through what? (no mitochondria)
Glycolysis
__________= number of RBCs in a cubic
millimeter 3
(mm ) or microliter (μL) of blood
Red blood cell count
______ counts are useful in diagnosis of diseases and evaluation of their
progress
RBC
Changes in RBC counts reflect changes in _________________
Blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity
___________ causes kidneys and liver to release EPO (erythropoietin), a
hormone which stimulates RBC production
Low blood O2
Low blood O2 causes kidneys and liver to release _____________, a
hormone which stimulates RBC production
EPO (erythropoietin)
Erythropoiesis is Regulated by a ________ feedback mechanism
Negative
Cancer, dehydration, blood loss, chronic lung disease and high altitude can
all bypass negative feedback and result in too much ______
EPO
Excess EPO can result in ____________, a condition called
polycythemia.
Too many RBCs
Excess EPO can result in too many red blood cells, a condition called
what?
Polycythemia
What is the average life span of RBCs?
120 days
_____________ and _____________: Required for DNA synthesis; necessary
for the growth and division of all cells
Vitamin B12; folic acid
___________ (secreted by the stomach lining) is required for the body
to ABSORB Vitamin B12
Intrinsic factor
Too little intrinsic factor = low Vitamin B12 levels = condition called
________________-
Pernicious anemia
What is required for hemaglobin synthesis?
Iron
Condition in which the O2-carrying capacity of the blood is
reduced, due to deficiency of RBCs or hemoglobin
Anemia
______________ requires
intrinsic factor for
absorption via small
intestine
Vitamin B12
What is the source of vitamin B12?
Absorbed from small intestine
What is the function of vitamin B12?
DNA synthesis
What is the source of iron?
Absorbed from small
intestine; conserved
during red blood cell
destruction and made
available for reuse
What is the function of iron?
Hemoglobin synthesis
What is the source of folic acid?
Absorbed from small intestine
What is the function of Folic acid
DNA synthesis
Caused by a single DNA base mutation, which codes for hemoglobin
Sickle cell disease
Results in abnormal hemoglobin structure
Sickle cell disease
in ____________, RBCs are sticky, deform into sickle shapes, and block narrow blood vessels,
stopping blood flow to local areas
Sickle cell disease
In _____________, Oxygen deficiency leads to more sickling, more blockages, severe pain
Sickle cell disease
In ______________, RBCs die quickly, resulting in anemia, which causes extreme fatigue
Sickle cell disease
Children diagnosed with __________ at birth receive antibiotics to protect infection in spleen
Sickle cell disease
In _____________, Hydroxyurea is given to cause production of fetal hemoglobin, which is more
efficient at binding oxygen; slows down sickling
Sickle cell disease
In __________, Transplant of bone marrow or umbilical cord stem cells can cure disease, but
has slight risk of death
Sickle cell disease
In ____________, Experiments to correct the mutation in the genome and infuse new stem cells
into bone marrow show promise
Sickle cell disease
Worn out or damaged RBCs are removed by _______ or _________
Spleen; liver
Ruptured RBCs are ____________ by macrophages
Phagocytized
______ separates into 4 subunits: globin chains with heme groups
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin separates into 4 subunits: __________
Globin chains with heme groups
Globin chains are broken down into protein monomers (________) that are
recycled to make new proteins.
Amino acids
____ break down into iron and biliverdin (a green pigment)
Heme groups
Heme groups break down into ____ and ____ (a green pigment)
iron; biliverdin
____ is transported to red bone marrow by the protein transferrin and used to
make new hemoglobin (recycled)
Iron
Iron is transported to red bone marrow by the protein ____ and used to
make new hemoglobin (recycled)
Transferrin
80% of the iron ends up stored in liver cells bound to the protein _____
Ferritin
____ is converted into bilirubin (a yellow pigment)
Biliverden
Biliverdin is converted into ____ (a yellow pigment)
Bilirubin
Biliverdin and bilirubin are excreted in ____and broken down into stercobilin
(excreted in feces) and urobilin (sent to the kidneys and excreted in urine) in
the small intestine.
Bile
Biliverdin and bilirubin are excreted in bile and broken down into ____
(excreted in feces) and urobilin (sent to the kidneys and excreted in urine) in
the small intestine.
Stercobilin
Biliverdin and bilirubin are excreted in bile and broken down into stercobilin
(excreted in feces) and ____ (sent to the kidneys and excreted in urine) in
the small intestine.
Urobilin
____ protect against disease
WBCs
____ have limited life spans, so they must always be replaced
Leukocytes
WBCs are Produced in red bone marrow, under control of hormones:
____ and colony-stimulating factors
Interleukins
WBCs are Produced in red bone marrow, under control of hormones:
interleukins and ____
Colony-stimulating factors
What are the two categories of WBCs?
Granulocytes and agranulocytes
____, which have granular cytoplasm, and short life span
Granulocytes
____, which do not have noticeable granules
Agranulocytes
What are the three types of granulocytes?
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
What are the two types of agranulocytes?
Lymphocytes and monocytes
WBCs can squeeze between the cells of a capillary wall
and leave blood vessel, then migrate toward infection site
Diapedesis
proteins that direct leukocytes to injury
sites
Cellular adhesion molecules
____: Engulfing and digestion of pathogens; neutrophils and
monocytes are most mobile and active phagocytes
Phagocytosis
Reaction that restricts spread of infection;
promoted by basophils, by secretion of heparin and histamine;
involves swelling and increased capillary permeability
Inflammatory response
Attraction of WBCs to an infection site, by
chemicals released by damaged cells
Positive chemotaxis
Granulocytes with small, light purple granules in acid-base stain
Neutrophils
WBC with a lobed nucleus
Neutrophils
Neutrophils are also called what?
Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs)
First WBC to arrive at an infection site?
Neutrophils
______ are strong phagocytes (WBCs)
Neutrophils
_______ are 54% to 70% of leukocytes; elevated in bacterial infections
Neutrophils
__________ are Granulocytes with coarse granules that stain deep red in acid stain
Eosinophils
_______ have a biolobed nucleus
Eosinophils
This WBC helps control inflammation and allergic reactions
Eosinophils
_______ Defend against parasitic worm infestations
Eosinophils
_____ are 1% to 3% of leukocytes
Eosinophils
____ are Elevated in parasitic worm infestations and allergic reactions
Eosinophils
Neutrophil
Eosinophil
Granulocytes with large granules that stain deep blue in basic stain
Basophils
Release histamine to stimulate inflammation
Basophils
Release heparin to stop blood from clotting
Basophils
Less than 1% of leukocytes
Basophils
Largest of WBCs
Monocytes
WBC: Spherical, kidney-shaped, oval, or lobed nuclei
Monocyte
WBC: agranulocytes
Monocytes
Leave bloodstream to become macrophages
Monocytes
3% to 9% of leukocytes
Monocytes
WBCs that live for weeks to months
Monocytes
Basophil
Monocyte
Slightly larger than RBCs; smallest WBCs
Lymphocytes
WBC w/ Large spherical (round) nucleus surrounded by thin rim of cytoplasm
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are granulocytes or agranulocytes?
Agranulocytes
Two major types of lymphocytes?
T cells and B cells
__ cells and __ cells are major types; both important in
specific/acquired immunity
T; B
__ cells directly attack pathogens, tumor cells
T
__ cells produce antibodies
B
25% to 33% of leukocytes
Lymphocytes
WBCs that May live for years
Lymphocytes
Lymphocyte
What is a high WBC count?
More than 10,500/microliter
Leukocytosis results in _____ blood count
High
A high WBC count is a result of?
Acute infections, vigorous exercise, great loss of body fluids
Characteristic of leukocytosis?
High WBC count
Leukopenia is characterized by a _____ WBC count
Low
What is a low WBC count?
less than 3,500
______ is a result of Typhoid fever, flu, measles, mumps, chicken pox, AIDS, polio, anemia
Leukopenia
____ increase during bacterial infections
Neutrophils
____ (a type of lymphocyte) decrease in HIV infection
Helper T cells
A patient with elevated ____ could have Hairy cell leukemia, whooping cough,
mononucleosis
Lymphocytes
A patient with elevated ____ could have a Tapeworm infestation, hookworm
infestation, allergic reactions
Eosinophils
A patient with elevated ____ could have typhoid fever, malaria, tuberculosis
Monocytes
A patient with elevated ____ could have a bacterial infection
Neutrophils
A patient with too few _______ could have AIDS
Helper T cells (lymphocytes)
A cancer of white blood cells
Leukemia
Leukemia is classified by speed of onset: ____ or ____
Acute; chronic
Symptoms appear suddenly & progresses rapidly
Acute
Begins more slowly, may be undetected for months or years
Chronic
Leukemia is also classified by type: _____ or _____
Lymphoid; myeloid
Cancer of lymphocytes produced in lymph nodes
Lymphoid leukemia
Cancer of granulocytes produced in red bone marrow
Myeloid leukemia
Symptoms: Excess number of WBCs, fatigue, headache, nosebleeds,
fever, respiratory infections, bone pain, increased blood clotting time
causing bruising and bleeding
Leukemia
Treatments for leukemia include:
Traditional cancer treatments (chemotherapy), drugs that
target enzymes specific to cancer cells, bone marrow or stem cell
transplants, refining diagnosis.
Platelets are Cytoplasmic fragments of ____ (a type of stem cells in red
bone marrow)
Megakaryocytes
Platelets are Produced by hemocytoblasts in response to the hormone,
____
Thrombopoietin
____ → megakaryocyte → thrombocytes
Hemocytoblast
Hemocytoblast → ____ → thrombocytes
Megakaryocyte
Hemocytoblast → megakaryocyte → ____
Thrombocytes
____ Lack a nucleus, and are less than half the size of a RBC
Platelets
What is the platelet count in blood?
150,000 to 400,000/ microliter of blood
____: Platelet count is too high
Thrombocytosis
_____: platelet count below normal
Thrombocytopenia
Platelets help in ____(stoppage of bleeding) in damaged blood vessels,
by sticking to broken surfaces
Hemostasis
Platelets Release ____, which causes smooth muscles in walls of broken
blood vessels to contract
Seratonin
In blood, ____ is Clear, straw-colored
Plasma
Liquid portion of blood
Plasma
_____ is 55% of blood volume
Plasma
____ in blood is 92% water
Plasma
______ in blood contains organic and inorganic chemicals
Plasma
____ in blood Transports nutrients, gases, hormones, and vitamins
Plasma
____ in blood Helps regulate fluid and electrolyte balance and maintain pH
Plasma
Most abundant dissolved substances (solutes) in plasma
Plasma proteins
______ are not typically used as an energy source in blood
Plasma proteins
What organ makes 4/5 plasma proteins?
The liver
What are the most important blood gases?
Oxygen and carbon dioxide
What are the four plasma nutrients?
Amino acids
Simple sugars
Nucleotides
Lipids
What are the three type of plasma nutrients lipids?
Fats (triglycerides)
Phospholipids
Cholesterol
What are NPNs?
Nonprotein nitrogenous substances
NPNs (nonprotein nitrogenous substances are Molecules that contain nitrogen, but are not ____
proteins
NPNs (nonprotein nitrogenous substances are Molecules that contain ____, but are not proteins
Nitrogen
In plasma, NPNs (nonprotein nitrogenous substances) include:
Urea
Uric acid
Amino acids
Creatine
Creatinine
BUN
product of protein catabolism; about 50% of NPNs
Urea
Urea: product of ____; about 50% of NPNs
Protein catabolism
product of nucleic acid catabolism
Uric acid
Uric acid: product of ____
Nucleic acid catabolism
product of protein digestion
Amino acids
Amino acids: product of ____
Protein digestion
stores energy in phosphate bonds; regenerates ATP in
muscles
Creatine
product of creatine metabolism
Creatinine
blood urea nitrogen; indicates health of kidney (high level
indicates that kidney is not excreting urea in normal quantity, due
to some type of impaired renal function)
BUN
Plasma contains ions called _____, since they ionize in water, and
can conduct electricity
Electrolytes
are absorbed from the intestine or released as by-products of
cellular metabolism
Plasma electrolytes
What are some electrolytes found in blood plasma?
Sodium
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Chloride
Bicarbonate
Phosphate
Sulfate
______ and ____ are the most abundant electrolytes
Sodium; chloride
Stoppage of bleeding.
Hemostasis
Three actions that limit or prevent blood loss in order that
they occur:
Blood vessel (vascular) spasm
Platelet plug formation
Blood coagulation
Hemostasis mechanisms are most effective in _____ blood vessel injuries
Small
A ________ is Stimulated by cutting or breaking a small blood vessel
Vascular spasm
During a ____, Smooth muscle in blood vessel contracts rapidly
Vascular spasm
A ____ Slows blood loss very quickly, and ends of vessel may close
completely
Vascular spasm
A vascular spasm Response lasts a few minutes, but effect continues for __ minutes
30
The long-lasting effect of a vascular spasm allows time for a _______ to form and for blood to coagulate.
Platelet plug
During a ____, Serotonin released from platelets causes vasoconstriction which
further helps to reduce blood loss
Vascular spasm
______ are Triggered by exposure of platelets to collagen
Platelet plugs
Platelets adhere (stick) to rough surface to form a plug
Platelet plug
Most effective hemostatic mechanism, occurs within 5 to 15 minutes
Blood coagulation
Blood coagulations Form ____ in a series of reactions, in which each step activates next
one; this is called a cascade
Blood clots
Blood coagulation is Initiated by 2 different methods: ____ or ____ clotting mechanism
Extrinsic; intrinsic
Many chemicals used in coagulation are called ____
Clotting factors
Vitamin ___ necessary for functioning of some of the clotting factors
K
In blood coagulation, the Major event is conversion of soluble ____ to insoluble threads of fibrin,
which traps blood cells
Fibrinogen
In blood coagulation, the Major event is conversion of soluble fibrinogen to insoluble threads of ____,
which traps blood cells
Fibrin
Triggered by blood coming in contact with tissues outside
of blood vessels or damaged wall of blood vessel
Extrinsic clotting mechanism
During the extrinsic clotting mechanism ____ converts fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin threads
Thrombin
During the extrinsic clotting mechanism, Thrombin converts ____ into insoluble fibrin
threads
Fibrinogen
During the extrinsic clotting mechanism Thrombin converts fibrinogen into insoluble ____
threads
Fibrin
Fibrin threads stick to damaged blood vessel surfaces, and
trap blood cells and platelets; this mass is a ____
Blood clot
The extrinsic clotting mechanism is an example of a ____ feedback mechanism; once clotting begins, it promotes additional clotting
Positive
The _____ clotting mechanism Can start without tissue damage
Intrinsic
The ____ clotting mechanism Activated when blood comes in contact with foreign
surface, such as collagen, in connective tissue, instead of
endothelium of blood vessel wall
Intrinsic
The intrinsic clotting mechanism is triggered by ______ (found inside blood)
Hageman factor XII
Intrinsic clotting mechanism: Starting with formation of ____, this cascade proceeds and ends same way as extrinsic mechanism, with formation of a fibrin mesh and a blood clot
Factor X
Intrinsic clotting mechanism: Starting with formation of Factor X, this cascade proceeds
and ends same way as extrinsic mechanism, with
formation of a ____ and a blood clot
Fibrin mesh
Intrinsic clotting method: Starting with formation of Factor X, this cascade proceeds
and ends same way as extrinsic mechanism, with
formation of a fibrin mesh and a ____
Blood clot
Where are 9/12 of the clotting factors made?
The Liver
What mineral is required for blood clotting?
Calcium
What vitamin is required for blood clotting?
Vitamin K
After a blood clot forms, it retracts and pulls the edges of a
broken blood vessel together while squeezing ____ from
the clot
Serum
plasma minus fibrinogen and most clotting
factors
Serum
____ stimulates smooth muscle
cells and fibroblasts to repair damaged blood vessel walls
Platelet-derived growth factor
____ digests fibrin threads, and dissolves the blood
clot
Plasmin
An abnormal blood clot that forms in a blood
vessel
Thrombus
A blood clot moving through the blood vessels
Embolus
Blood clot in a vessel supplying a vital organ
(brain, heart)
Thrombosis
Death of tissues which have blocked blood
vessels due to blood clot formation
Infarction
Blood clot that travels, and then blocks a
blood vessel in an organ (such as pulmonary embolism in
lungs)
Embolism
Accumulation of fat in arterial linings
can sometimes cause abnormal clot formation; a common
form of thrombosis
Atherosclerosis
Clot formation due to pooling of stagnant blood, mainly in femoral or
popliteal veins, or deep veins of pelvis
Deep vein thrombosis
Serious complication of DVT is a ____, in which
blood clot travels through circulation, and lodges in a pulmonary blood
vessel, resulting in loss of function in affected portion of the lung
Pulmonary embolism
Occurs with prolonged period of immobility, such as airplane flight
Deep vein thrombosis
Symptoms of ____: deep muscle pain, cramping, redness, swelling,
and dilation of surface veins (phlebitis)
Deep vein thrombosis
In ____, Clot may break off hours or days after formation
Deep vein thrombosis
Preventive measures for _____: Anticoagulant medications, compression
stockings, and exercise during travel
Deep vein thrombosis
In 1910, identification of the ____
explained the observed blood type incompatibilities
ABO blood antigen gene
Blood types are distinguished by Proteins (____) on the
surfaces of red blood cells, and these can be determined
by the proteins or by the genes that encode them
Antigens
Safe ____ require knowing the blood types of
donor and recipient, and cross matching donor red blood
cells (RBCs) with recipient’s serum, checking for
agglutination (clumping of RBCs)
Transfusions
Safe transfusions require knowing the ____ of
donor and recipient, and cross matching donor red blood
cells (RBCs) with recipient’s serum, checking for
agglutination (clumping of RBCs)
Blood types
Safe transfusions require knowing the blood types of
donor and recipient, and ____ donor red blood
cells (RBCs) with recipient’s serum, checking for
agglutination (clumping of RBCs)
Cross matching
Safe transfusions require knowing the blood types of
donor and recipient, and cross matching donor red blood
cells (RBCs) with recipient’s serum, checking for
____ (clumping of RBCs)
Agglutination
Any molecules that evoke an immune response
Antigens
If immune system finds a foreign antigen in the body, it produces ____
against the antigen
Antibodies
Proteins in blood plasma that react against a specific antigen
Antibodies
In an ____ blood transfusion, donor red blood cells (RBCs) evoke
an immune response in the recipient, and antibodies in the recipient’s plasma
agglutinate (clump) the donor RBCs
Incompatible
Clumping of RBCs, which occurs when an antibody (in recipient’s plasma)
encounters its specific antigen (on donor’s RBCs)
Agglutination
Only a small number of antigens on RBC membranes evoke serious
transfusion reactions: those of the ____ and ____ groups
ABO; Rh
____ reaction: Anxiety, breathing problems, facial flushing, headache,
severe pain, perhaps jaundice
Transfusion
Based on the presence or absence of two major antigens on red blood
cell membranes: Antigen A and Antigen B.
ABO blood group
Antigens A and B are ____ attached to glycolipids on cell
membranes
Carbohydrates
Antigens A and B are carbohydrates attached to ____ on cell
membranes
Glycolipids
Antibodies are associated with some blood types; in general, a person
produces antibodies against ____ that are not present on his/her
RBC membranes
Antigens
Blood type A antigen?
A
Blood type A antibody?
Anti-B
Blood type B antigen?
B
Blood type B antibody?
Anti-A
Blood type AB antigen?
A and B
Must make sure that antibodies in recipient’s plasma do
not bind to donor’s RBC antigens, and ____ and
destroy the RBCs
Agglutinate
Type A blood contains Antigen A on RBC
membranes, and Anti-B antibodies in plasma; this
person cannot receive transfusion of RBCs that contain the
__ antigen
B
Type O is the ______ donor
Universal
Type AB is the _______ recipient
Universal
Type O lacks antigens ___ and ___
A; B
Type O RBCs can be donated to a person with ____ blood type
Any
Even if a person has Anti-A and/or Anti-B antibodies, the target antigens are
missing on type __ donor’s RBCs, so agglutination will not occur
O
Often, when blood type __ is given to a person with a different blood type, it is transfused
slowly and in small quantities
O
Type AB blood lacks both Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies, so an individual
with type AB can receive donor RBCs of ___ type
Any
The Rh blood group was named for the ______ monkey, in which it was first studied
Rhesus monkey
The Rh group includes several Rh antigens or factors, but most important
one is antigen __
D
Presence of antigen D or other Rh antigens on RBC
membranes.
Rh positive
Do not have Rh antigens on RBC membranes
Rh negative
Serious condition in Rh+ fetus carried by Rh- mother who has been
previously sensitized to Rh antigen; rare condition, due to medical care
Erythroblastosis fetalis, or hemolytic disease of the newborn
Which of the following is an effect of PTH on the kidneys?
A. Decreased synthesis of vitamin D
B. Increased calcium excretion
C. Decreased calcium excretion
D. decreased phosphate excretion
C
Protein molecules that act as receptors for nonsteroid hormones typically have a ______ site, which interacts with the hormone. As a result, the _____ site of the receptor interacts with other membrane proteins.
Binding; activity
Vitamin D stimulates the absorption of ____ from food in the intestine
Calcium
The pancreatic hormone that stimulates an increase in blood glucose levels is _____
Glucagon
What hormone affects the production and differentiation of T lymphocytes and, thus, plays an important role in immunity?
Thymosin
How are steroid hormones transported to their target cells?
Bound to plasma proteins
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin (OT) are synthesized in the ______. Nerve impulses cause their release from the ____ (where they are stored) into the bloodstream.
Hypothalamus; posterior pituitary
What are the effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
In the kidneys, it promotes blood calcium conservation and promotes excretion of phosphate. In bones it inhibits osteoblast activity.
Insulin, a nonsteroid hormone,Insulin, a nonsteroid hormone, binds with a cell membrane receptor causing activation of proteins inside the cell. What would you consider insulin to be in this example?
A first messenger
Which of the following describes an effect of parathyroid hormone in kidney cells?
A. It stimulates the production of the active form of vitamin D
B. It stimulates the production of provitamin D from cholesterol
C. It stimulates the degradation of vitamin D.
A
Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis are stimulated by the pancreatic hormone ?
Glucagon
What causes the release of ADH and oxytocin from the posterior pituitary?
Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus
Identify the hormone that decreases the rate at which calcium is lost in the urine.
Parathyroid hormone
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin (OT) are synthesized in the _______. Nerve impulses cause their release from the ______ (where they are stored) into the bloodstream.
Hypothalamus; posterior pituitary
Which of the following is an effect of PTH on the kidneys.
A. Increased calcium excretion
B. Decreased synthesis of vitamin D
C. Decreased phosphate excretion
D. Decreased calcium excretion
D
Amines, peptides, and proteins are examples of ______ hormones that bind to receptors in the target cell membranes.
Nonsteroid
What are some effects of glucagon?
Raises blood glucose levels
Stimulates the conversion of noncarbohydrates (e.g., amino acids) into glucose, and stimulates the liver to break down glycogen.
What causes the release of ADH and oxytocin from the posterior pituitary?
Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus
The level of maternal bonding with the infant appears to be correlated to the levels of the hormone
______ during pregnancy.
Oxytocin or OT
ChoiceFormed from cholesterol. They include: estrogen, testosterone, aldosterone, cortisol.
Steroid hormones
Formed from amino acids. They include: norepinephrine, epinephrine.
Amine hormones
Formed from amino acids. They include: antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin, thyrotropin-releasing hormone.
Peptide hormones
Formed from amino acids. They include: parathyroid hormone, growth hormone, prolactin.
Protein hormones
Formed from protein and carbohydrate. They include follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone.
Glycoprotein hormones
Athletes who abuse erythropoietin (EPO) put themselves at risk for _____.
Heart attack
The gland located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone is the _______ gland. It is attached to the hypothalamus through the infundibulum.
Pituitary
Hypopituitary dwarfism is due to an abnormally low level of ____ hormone during childhood
growth (somatotropin)
The pancreatic hormone that stimulates an increase in blood glucose levels is
Glucagon
What are some examples of steroid hormones?
Testosterone
Estrogen
Cortisol
Aldosterone
Too little growth hormone during childhood has what effect?
Overall small size, though proportions are normal
What causes the release of ADH and oxytocin from the posterior pituitary?
Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus
What would stimulate the release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?
Decreased levels of thyroid hormone
Increased levels of thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
What are the two effects of antidiuretic hormone, or ADH?
Vasoconstriction; water retention
What hormone helps maintain blood volume and blood pressure by conserving sodium ions and water in the kidney?
Aldosterone
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the ______ controls the secretion of TSH by the adenohypophysis.
Hypothalamus
Manuel has recently lost a loved one causing undue levels of stress, which stimulates his hypothalamus to release more CRH leading to a ______ concentration of ______ until the stress subsides.
Higher; cortisol
Aldosterone helps to regulate blood volume by stimulating _____ conservation in the kidneys.
Sodium
Amines, peptides, and proteins are examples of ______ hormones that bind to receptors in the target cell membranes.
Nonsteroid
What causes the release of ADH and oxytocin from the posterior pituitary?
Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus
What would stimulate the release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?
Increased levels of thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH), decreased levels of thyroid hormone
Calcitonin lowers blood calcium levels by _____.
Stimulating osteoblasts and inhibiting osteoclasts
Which symptoms are associated with acromegaly?
Enlarged nose, hands, feet, and jaw
Where is the adrenal medulla?
At the core of the adrenal gland, superior to the kidney
Which pair of hormones acts antagonistically to one another?
Estrogen and LH
Melatonin and calcitonin
Insulin and glucagon
T3 and T4
Insulin and glucagon
The levels of ______ (secreted by the adrenal cortex) increase under conditions of stress, as a result of an increase of CRH (produced by the hypothalamus).
Cortisol
What hormone helps maintain blood volume and blood pressure by conserving sodium ions and water in the kidney?
Aldosterone
What mechanisms is triggered when blood glucose is high?
Pancreatic beta cells secrete insulin
How does type 1 diabetes mellitus differ from type 2 diabetes mellitus?
Type 1 diabetes mellitus results from a lack of insulin, and type 2 diabetes mellitus results from an inability to respond to insulin.
Human growth hormone (HGH) can be used to treat certain conditions in adults, however, excess HGH can cause ______.
Joint pain, increased risk of diabetes mellitus
Aldosterone helps to regulate blood volume by stimulating _____ conservation in the kidneys.
Sodium
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the ______ controls the secretion of TSH by the adenohypophysis.
Hypothalamus
What gland is a small, yellowish brown structure covered by a thin capsule of connective tissue?
Parathyroid gland
An inability to respond to insulin results in type _____ diabetes mellitus while a lack of insulin results in type _____ diabetes mellitus.
2, 1
Human growth hormone (HGH) can be used to treat _____.
Turner syndrom
What hormone helps maintain blood volume and blood pressure by conserving sodium ions and water in the kidney?
Aldosterone
What causes the release of ADH and oxytocin from the posterior pituitary?
Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus
There are four _____ glands, each a small, yellowish brown structure covered by a thin capsule of connective tissue.
Parathyroid
Parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium concentration by stimulating ______ and by inhibiting ______.
Osteoclasts; osteoblasts
Which hormone stimulates osteoclasts and inhibits osteoblasts?
Parathyroid hormone
Which hormones have the effect of increasing the heart rate and blood pressure, increasing the breathing rate, and decreasing digestive activity?
Norepinephrine and epinephrine
The term general adaptation syndrome refers to the body’s response to
stress
Which stage of the general adaptation syndrome can lead to death?
Stage of exhaustion
Choose all changes that are typically observed in endocrine glands with age.
The proportion of each gland that is fibrous in nature increases.
Lipofuscin accumulates in cells
They decrease in size
What would stimulate the release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?
Decreased levels of thyroid hormone; increased levels of thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
With age, the glands of the endocrine system generally _____ in size and _____ in the proportion of each gland that is fibrous in nature.
Decrease; increase
Major glands of the endocrine system
Thymus
thyroid
pancreas
Steroid hormones are synthesized from ____, while nonsteroid hormones are synthesized from _____
Cholesterol; amino acids
What is CRH?
Corticotropin-releasing hormone
What is GnRH?
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
What is SS?
Somatostatin
What is GHRH?
Growth hormone-releasing hormone
What is PIH?
Prolactin release-inhibiting hormone
What is PRF?
Prolactin-releasing factor
What is TRH?
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
What is ACTH?
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
What is FSH?
Follicle-stimulating hormone
What is GH?
Growth hormone
