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Spring 2014 > A & P Exam 2 > Flashcards

A & P Exam 2 Flashcards

0
Q

What kind of muscle is in the heart?

A

Cardia: involuntary, striated

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1
Q

What type of tissue is in the heart?

A

Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

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2
Q

Can cardiac muscle contract without external stimulation?

A

Yes

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3
Q

Groups of cardiac muscle cells can adopt the contraction rate of the …… cell in the group

A

Most rapid

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4
Q 
Pumps blood through vascular system
Delivers O2 and nutrients to cells
Transports hormones
Delivers antibodies
Removes waste products
A

Heart

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5
Q

How is the heart positioned in the chest?

A

In the center, a little to the left

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6
Q

The space between the two pleural cavities that contain the lungs
Surrounded by loose connective tissue

A

Mediastinum

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7
Q

What else besides the heart is in the mediastinum?

A

Trachea, esophagus, vascular structures, nerves, lymphatic structures

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8
Q

The mediastinum is fenestrated (holes) in what 3 species?

A

Dog, horse, sheep

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9
Q

Thin layer of serosal membrane that lines the thoracic cavity and covers the organs in it

A

Pleura

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10
Q

What types of pleura are there?

A

Visceral and parietal

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11
Q

Excessive fluid in a body cavity

A

Effusion

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12
Q

Excessive fluid in tissue

A

Edema

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13
Q

Blood in thoracic cavity

A

Hemothorax

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14
Q

What are the 4 layers of the heart?

A

Pericardium
Epicardium
Myocardium
Endocardium

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15
Q

Outermost layer of heart
Fibrous connective tissue
Protects the heart
Loosely attaches the heart to the diaphragm

A

Fibrous Pericardium

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16
Q

Parietal layer of the pericardium

Fused to the fibrous pericardium

A

Serous pericardium

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17
Q

Fluid filled cavity between the parietal and visceral layers of the serous pericardium

A

Pericardial space

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18
Q

Visceral layer of the serous pericardium

A

Epicardium

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19
Q

Excessive amount of pericardial fluid

A

Pericardial effusion

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20
Q

What are some causes of pericardial effusion?

A

Infection, inflammation, hemorrhage

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21
Q

Excessive pericardial fluid builds up and the heart becomes unable to expand

A

Cardiac tamponade

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22
Q

What is the TX for pericardial effusion?

A

Pericardiocentesis

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23
Q

Heart wall located inside the sac formed by the pericardium

Thickest layer of hear tissue

A

Myocardium

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24
Q

Membranous lining between the myocardium and chambers of the heart

A

Endocardium

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25
Q

The top or cranial portion of the heart

A

Base

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26
Q

The point or caudal portion of the heart
Top of the left ventricle
Points to the left

A

Apex

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27
Q

The largest and most visible parts of the atria from the outside of the heart

A

Auricles

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28
Q

What does auricle mean?

A

Ear

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29
Q

Long and narrow, thick walled, terminates at the apex of the heart

A

Left ventricle

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30
Q

Broader surface area, wraps around the left ventricle

A

Right ventricle

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31
Q

Borders of the ventricles are externally separated by what structure?
Contains fats and blood vessels that are part of the coronary circulation of the heart

A

Interventricular sulci (grooves)

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32
Q

What structure externally separates the atria from the ventricles?

A

Coronary groove

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33
Q

The myocardium (muscle of the heart) has its own blood supply called….
They branch off the aorta and supply oxygenated blood to the heart
Located in the coronary groove and Interventricular grooves

A

Coronary arteries

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34
Q

Coronary arteries branch into: arterioles > capillaries > venules > cardiac veins > ……. …….. which empties into the right atrium

A

Coronary sinus

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35
Q

These arteries emerge from the external rig ventricle as the pulmonary trunk
They quickly divide into right and left …….. arteries traveling to each lung

A

Pulmonary arteries

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36
Q

The pulmonary arteries emerge from the external right ventricle as the ………. ……….
This structures is larger and more curved than the vena cavae

A

Pulmonary trunk

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37
Q

The largest artery in the body

A

Aorta

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38
Q

The walls of the aorta are the thinnest or thickest of any blood vessel?

A

Thickest

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39
Q

The aorta emerges from the ……. …….. into the aortic arch

A

Left ventricle

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40
Q

The brachiocephalic trunk and left subclavian artery branch off the …… just after the ……. valve

A

Aorta

Aortic

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41
Q

What are the chambers of the heart

A

Right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle

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42
Q

Which chamber of the heart has the thickest walls to aid in forceful contraction?

A

Left ventricle

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43
Q

Do the valves of the heart work one way or both ways?

A

One way

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44
Q

The right atrioventricular valve is also called what?
It has 3 flaps
It connects the right atrium to the right ventricle

A

Tricuspid valve

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45
Q

The left atrioventricular valve is also known as what? (2)
It has 2 flaps
It connects the left atrium to the left ventricle

A

Mitral or bicuspid

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46
Q

What are the 2 semilunar valves?

A

Pulmonary valve: 3 flaps

Aortic valve: 3 flaps

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47
Q

What does lunar mean?

A

Moon

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48
Q

What valve in the heart has only 2 flaps?

A

Left AV, mitral, bicuspid

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49
Q

Valves have these that originate from a fibrous ring of the valve

A

Flaps

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50
Q

Increased blood pressure in the chambers during contraction forces flaps to

A

Open

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51
Q

The AV flaps are prevented from bending back into the atrium by the

A

Chordae tendinae

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52
Q

Chordae tendinae connect the free edges of the AV flaps to the ……… muscles.
These muscles attach to the Interventricular septum

A

Papillary muscles

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53
Q

What 2 structures are the papillary muscles connected to?

A

Chordae tendinae and Interventricular septum

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54
Q

Band of tissue present in the right ventricle that originates at the Interventricular septum
Provides additional structural support to the wall of the right ventricle
Acts as a primary conduction path
Not attached to flaps of tricuspid valve

A

Moderator band

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55
Q

What chamber of the heart is the moderator band located in?

A

The right ventricle

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56
Q

This type of vessel leaves the heart and carries blood to systemic circulation or away from the heart

A

Arteries

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57
Q

This type of vessel carries blood from systemic circulation to the heart

A

Vessels

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58
Q

Nutrient and oxygen rich blood leaves the heart through the

A

Aorta

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59
Q

The aorta branches into smaller

A

Arteries

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60
Q

Arteries branch into

A

Arterioles

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61
Q

Arterioles branch into

A

Capillaries

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62
Q

At the capillary level, nutrients and O2 are exchanged for

A

Waste and CO2

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63
Q

Capillaries branch into

A

Venules

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64
Q

Venules branch into

A

Veins

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65
Q

This vein carries blood from the caudal part of the body to the right atrium of the heart

A

Caudal vena cava

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66
Q

This vein carries blood from the cranial part of the body to the right atrium

A

Cranial vena cava

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67
Q

The cranial and caudal vena cava carry what type of blood to the right side of the heart?

A

Deoxygenated

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68
Q

Veins typically carry deoxygenated blood with these 2 exceptions

A

Pulmonary veins

Umbilical vein

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69
Q

This vein carries oxygenated blood to the heart

A

Pulmonary vein

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70
Q

This vein carries oxygenated blood to the fetus

A

Umbilical vein

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71
Q

The heart pumps deoxygenated blood through the ………. …….. to the lungs to pick up O2.

A

Pulmonary artery

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72
Q

Oxygenated blood enters the left side of the heart through the

A

Pulmonary vein

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73
Q

Arteries typically carry what type of blood?

A

Oxygenated

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74
Q

2 arteries do NOT carry oxygenated blood

A

Pulmonary artery

Umbilical artery

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75
Q

This artery carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart to the lungs

A

Pulmonary artery

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76
Q

This artery carries deoxygenated blood away from the fetus

A

Umbilical artery

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77
Q

What chamber of the heart do the cranial and caudal vena cava empty into?

A

Right atrium

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78
Q

From the right atrium, blood flows to which chamber?

A

Right ventricle

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79
Q

From the right ventricle where does the blood go?

A

Lungs via the pulmonary artery

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80
Q

From the pulmonary arteries, blood passes through branching vessels to the pulmonary capillaries of the …., where O2 exchange takes place

A

Alveoli

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81
Q

Where does O2 exchange take place?

A

Pulmonary capillaries of the alveoli

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82
Q

Is the blood in the pulmonary veins oxygenated?

A

Yes

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83
Q

From the lungs where does the blood go?

What vessel carries the blood there?

A

Left atrium

Pulmonary vein

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84
Q

Where does the blood go from the left atrium?

A

Left ventricle

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85
Q

From the left ventricle, where does the blood go?

A

To the body via the aorta

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86
Q

These arteries, which branch from the aorta, deliver oxygenated blood to the lungs

A

Bronchial arteries

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87
Q

What is the valve that is located between the right atrium and right ventricle?

A

Right AV or tricuspid

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88
Q

What valve is between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery?

A

Pulmonary valve

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89
Q

What valve is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle?

A

Left AV, mitral, bicuspid

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90
Q

What valve is located between the left ventricle and the aorta?

A

Aortic valve

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91
Q

Problems with the right side of the heart cause blood to backup into the caudal vena cava which causes

A

Ascites, abdomen fills with fluid

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92
Q

Problems with the left side of the heart cause blood to backup where?

A

Into the lungs

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93
Q

Fluid in the lungs

A

Pulmonary edema

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94
Q

This type of pulmonary edema is caused by left heart failure

It is perihilar and symmetrical

A

Cardiogenic

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95
Q

Each complete contraction and relaxation of the heart is called a

A

Cardia cycle

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96
Q

What are the 2 main parts of the cardiac cycle?

A

Systole

Diastole

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97
Q

Part of cardiac cycle in which the heart is relaxed

A

Diastole

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98
Q

Atria relax and fill with blood to be ejected during systole

A

Atrial diastole

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99
Q

Ventricles relax and fill with blood to be ejected during the next systolic contraction

A

Ventricular diastole

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100
Q

Heart muscle contracts

A

Systole

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101
Q

Atria contract and blood is ejected from the atria to the ventricles

A

Atrial systole

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102
Q

Ventricles contract and blood is ejected from the ventricles to the arteries

A

Ventricular systole

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103
Q

Blood flow through the heart starts with atrial and ventricular …….
The AV valves are …… And the semilunar valves are ……..

A

Diastole
AV: open
Semilunar: closed

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104
Q

During atrial …… the contraction of the atria ejects even more blood into the ventricles

A

Systole

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105
Q

There is a slight …… between atrial systole and ventricular systole

A

Delay

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106
Q

When the ventricles enter systole, it causes the AV valves to …… And the semilunar valves to …..

A

AV: shut
Semilunar: open

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107
Q

When the ventricles stop contracting and enter diastole, the semilunar valves ……

A

Shut

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108
Q

The pressure in the ventricles drops, allowing ……. to open

A

AV valves

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109
Q

What is unique about cardiac muscle cells?

A

They contract without any external stimulation

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110
Q

Groups of cardiac muscle cells adopt the contraction rate of the

A

Most rapid cell in the group

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111
Q

Does the heart need nervous input for the muscle cells to contract?

A

No

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112
Q

What does the nervous system modify?

A

Contraction rate and strength

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113
Q

The impulse for a heartbeat comes from where?

A

Sinoatrial node

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114
Q

Specialized area of cardiac muscle cells located in the right atrium deep to the endocardium
Pacemaker
Generates electrical impulses that triggers repeated beating of the heart
Contraction rate of the muscle cells in this area is faster than those in the walls of the atria or ventricles, therefore it “sets the pace”

A

Sinoatrial node (SA node)

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115
Q

Charge inside the cell is different than the charge outside the cell. This is called

A

Membrane potential

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116
Q

The inside of the cell is more negatively charged than the outside of the cell
There is more …… outside the cell and more ……. inside the cell

A

Outside: sodium
Inside: potassium

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117
Q

Sodium channels open causing sodium to flow in
As these positively charged ions enter the cell, this makes the charge inside the cell more positive
The charge inside the cell has now changed from net negative to net positive
This change is charge is called

A

Depolarization

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118
Q

Depolarization of cardiac cells in the …. node generates an electrical impulse which travels across the atria to the AV node

A

SA node

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119
Q

This causes contraction of the cardiac cells

A

Depolarization

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120
Q

The …… node will then depolarize and generate an electrical impulse which travels down the bundle of His and up the purkinje fibers

A

AV node

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121
Q

This allows for systole of the heart

A

Depolarization

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122
Q

Soon after sodium channels open, they close
Now potassium channels open
Since there is more potassium inside the cell, it will flow out
As these positively charged ions leave the cell, this changes the charge back to net negative charge inside the cell
This is called

A

Repolarization

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123
Q

When the cells are repolarizing, the heart is in

A

Diastole

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124
Q

When sodium and potassium are on opposite sides of the cell than they were originally, this pump will pump 3 sodium ions out of the cell at the same time it pumps 2 potassium ions back into the cells
Now the cell is ready to depolarize again

A

Sodium/potassium pump

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125
Q

When sodium channels allow sodium to rush into the cell, these channels also also open in the sarcolemma (plasma membrane) and the sarcoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A

Calcium

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126
Q

The increase of calcium in the cells allows for …… filaments to bind to …… filaments and slide across each other, shortening the cell and causing contraction of the cell

A

Myosin and actin

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127
Q

The impulse from the SA node travels quickly down the muscle fibers to the …… node located in the interatrial septum

A

Atrioventricular node

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128
Q

From the AV node, electrical impulses spread through the ……….
These are fibers in the ventricles that travel down the Interventricular septum to the bottom of the ventricles

A

Bundle of His

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129
Q

These fibers carry impulses from the Bundle of His up into the ventricular myocardium

A

Purkinje fibers

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130
Q

Impulse also spread across this from the Bundle of His

A

Moderator band

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131
Q

Ventricle contraction of systole begins at the …. of the heart and travels to the …..

A

Starts at apex up to base

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132
Q

After ……… systole, AV valves snap shut and semilunar valves pushed open
Blood is ejected from the ventricles into the pulmonary artery and aorta

A

Ventricular

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133
Q

This sound is heard at the closure of the AV valves at the beginning of the ventricular systole

A

“Lub”: S1

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134
Q

Mitral valve is loudest where?

A

L side of chest

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135
Q

Tricuspid valve is best heard where?

A

R side of heart

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136
Q

This normal heart sound is at the closure of the semilunar valves at the beginning of ventricular diastole

A

“Dub”: S2

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137
Q

The S2 sound (dub) is best heard where?

A

L side of chest

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138
Q

The only two heart sounds heard in small animals are

A

S1 and S2

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139
Q

These heart sounds can only be heard in large animals along with S1 and S2

A

S3 and S4

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140
Q

Heart sound heard in large animals

Sound of rapid ventricular filling

A

S3

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141
Q

Heart sound heard in large animals

Sound of contraction of atria

A

S4

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142
Q

There are several bypasses in the fetal circulation, why?

A

The fetus receives oxygenated, filtered blood from the mother through the placenta.
Keeps most blood out of pulmonary circulation and liver circulation

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143
Q

Oxygenated blood flows from the placenta through the

A

umbilical vein

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144
Q

What other vein besides the umbilical vein in the body carries oxygenated blood?

A

Pulmonary vein

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145
Q

In the fetus: Oxygenated blood from the umbilical vein flows through the liver and this structure which allows some blood to bypass the liver into the caudal vena cava.

A

Ductus venosus

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146
Q

In the fetus: most of the blood from the right atrium can flow where to bypass the lungs?

A

Directly into the left atrium through the foramen ovale

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147
Q

In the fetus: blood from the pulmonary artery may flow into the lungs or directly into the aorta through another type of bypass known as the

A

ductus arteriosus

148
Q

In the fetus: deoxygenated blood is sent back to the placenta through the

A

umbilical arteries

149
Q

After birth, the ductus venosus constricts and becomes the

A

ligamentum venosum

150
Q

After birth, the foramen ovale closes and becomes the

A

fossa ovalis

151
Q

After birth, the ductus arteriosus closes and becomes the

A

ligamentum arteriosus

152
Q

If the foramen ovale stays patent in the newborn the condition is called

A

atrial septal defect

153
Q

With an atrial septal defect, blood will shunt into the right atrium, causing a volume overload to the right atrium, right ventricle, and pulmonary vasculature, which can sometimes lead to

A

pulmonary hypertension

154
Q

Atrial septal defect can also can

A

generalized cyanosis

155
Q

If the ductus arteriosus remains patent in the newborn is called what?

A

Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA)

156
Q

Patent ductus arteriosus can lead to

A

left side heart failure with pulmonary edema

157
Q

Why would fetal blood bypass the liver?

A

Liver filters toxins and the blood has already been filtered by the dam’s liver

158
Q

If the ductus venosus stays patent in the newborn, what happens?

A

Blood is not filtered by the liver causing a build up of toxins.

159
Q

If the ductus venosus stays patent in the newborn, what is this condition called?

A

Portosystemic shunt (liver shunt)

160
Q

The amount of blood that leaves the heart per minute

A

cardiac output

161
Q

Cardiac output depends on what 2 things?

A

Stroke volume and heart rate

162
Q

The amount of blood ejected with each heartbeat (cardiac contraction) dependent upon: strength of contraction; size of heart; blood pressure; blood volume

A

Stroke volume

163
Q

Frequency of heart contractions

A

Heart rate

164
Q

SV (stroke volume) X HR (heart rate) =

A

CO (cardiac output)

165
Q

What would result in increased CO (cardiac output)?

A

Increased HR or increased SV

166
Q

Increased HR can be a result of what nervous system?

A

Sympathetic nervous system

167
Q

What would result in decreased cardiac output?

A

Decrease in stroke volume and or heart rate

168
Q

What nervous system causes the HR to decrease?

A

Parasympathetic

169
Q

When a chamber of the heart is depolarizing, it is in what?

A

Systole, contracting

170
Q

When a chamber of the heart is repolarizing, it is in what?

A

Diastole, rest

171
Q

Force of contraction

A

inotropy

172
Q

Medications that increase the force of cardiac contractions are termed:

A

Positive inotropes

173
Q

Medications that weaken the force of cardiac contractions are termed:

A

Negative inotropes

174
Q

Rate of contraction

A

Chronotrophy (chronotracking for races)

175
Q

These drugs may change the HR by affecting nerves controlling the heart or by changing the rhythm produced by the SA node

A

Chronotropic drugs

176
Q

What condition would you use a positive inotrope for? (increases strength of heart contraction)

A

heart failure

177
Q

What condition would you use a negative inotrope for? (decreases strength of heart contraction)

A

high bp

178
Q

Medications that increase HR

A

positive chronotropes

179
Q

What are 2 examples of positive chronotropes? (increase HR)

A

atropine, epinephrine

180
Q

Medications that decrease HR

A

Negative chronotropes

181
Q

When would negative chronotropic drugs be used? (decreases HR)

A

Increased HR, heart failure

182
Q

Increased filling of the heart (increased pre-load) results in increased force of cardiac contraction and increased stroke volume.

A

Starling’s Law

183
Q

Instrument which measures electrical current using electrodes attached to skin

A

Electrocardiograph

184
Q

Because cardiac contractions are the result of _______, an instrument the detects this may be used to measure the electrical activity of the heart

A

electrical currents

185
Q

What wave of the EKG does this represent: depolarization of the atria

A

P wave

186
Q

What wave of the EKG does this represent: waves created by ventricular depolarization, atrial repolarization is taking place as well

A

QRS complex

187
Q

What wave of the EKG does this represent: repolarization of the ventricles

A

T wave

188
Q

Blood in the systemic circulation is under higher or lower pressure than blood in the pulmonary or coronary circulation?

A

Higher - more pressure is needed to carry blood throughout the body

189
Q

Blood in what encounters more resistance to flow

A

systemic circulation

190
Q

What is the largest artery in the body, with the largest diameter and thickest walls of any blood vessel

A

Aorta

191
Q

What are the 3 layers of the arterial walls?

A

Outer fibrous layer
Middle smooth muscle layer
Endothelium

192
Q

Which two arteries have a middle layer that contains more elastic fibers than muscle fibers?
This allows vessels to stretch slightly as they receive high-pressure blood from ventricles

A

Aorta and Pulmonary arteries

193
Q

What part of the circulatory system does not have a muscle layer in the walls?

A

Capillaries

194
Q

Since venous blood is under lower pressure than arterial blood, vein has ______ walls than arteries

A

thinner

195
Q

What structure in veins ensure that blood travels only in the direction of the heart

A

Valves

196
Q

In the cat, the left subclavian and brachiocephalic arteries branch of the

A

aorta

197
Q

In the cat, the right subclavian branches of the

A

brachiocephalic artery

198
Q

Subclavian arteries travel toward the

A

thoracic limbs

199
Q

In the cat, the carotid arteries branch off the

A

right subclavian artery

200
Q

The main trunk of the aorta arches dorsally then travels

A

caudally

201
Q

The main trunk of the aorta splits at the hind limbs into the

A

external and internal iliac arteries

202
Q

This artery emerges at the caudal aorta

A

Coccygeal artery

203
Q

These veins carry blood to the cranial vena cava then back into the heart

A

Jugular veins

204
Q

Veins in the hind limbs merge into the right and left

A

internal and external iliac veins

205
Q

This vein is on the craniomedial aspect of the forelimb. Used for IV catheter placement

A

Cephalic vein

206
Q

Vein on the lateral aspect of the hind limb. Can be used for blood draw on dogs and ferrets

A

Saphenous

207
Q

Vein on the medial aspect of the hind limb. Used for venipuncture in cats

A

Femoral vein

208
Q

Veins on the ventral aspect of each side of the neck in the jugular groove, close the the carotid arteries

A

Jugular veins

209
Q

Care must be taken to avoid accidental injection into the carotid artery, esp in what species?

A

Equine

210
Q

This vein is also called the “milk vein”. Easily seen in lactating dairy cattle on the ventral aspect of each side of the abdomen. Thin-walled, superficial, prone to hematoma formation - DO NOT USE!!

A

Caudal epigastric vein

211
Q

Vein on the ventral midline of the tail. Used for venipuncture in ruminants, lizards, and small rodents.

A

Coccygeal vein

212
Q

The cranial vena cava is used for venipuncture in what 2 species?

A

Pigs and ferrets

213
Q

What is the primary function of the respiratory system?

A

Bring O2 into the body and take CO2 out

214
Q

Phonation, regulation of body temp, regulation of acid-base balance, sense of smell.
These are all functions of what system?

A

Respiratory

215
Q

Part of the respiratory system that includes structures from nares to trachea

A

Upper respiratory tract

216
Q

Part of the respiratory system that includes structures from the bronchi to the alveoli

A

Lower respiratory tract

217
Q

The respiratory system works in conjunction with what other system?

A

Cardiovascular

218
Q

This structure of the upper resp tract is the external opening of the respiratory tube. They lead to the nasal passages

A

Nares (nostrils)

219
Q

Structures of the upper resp tract between the nostrils and the pharynx

A

Nasal Passages

220
Q

Structure of the upper resp tract that separates the left and right nasal passage

A

nasal septum

221
Q

2 sets of thin, scroll-like bones in each nasal passage covered by epithelium. There are R, L, dorsal, ventral

A

Turbinates

222
Q

The nasal turbinates divide each nasal passage into 3 main passageways called

A

Dorsal, middle, and ventral meatus

223
Q

The 4th meatus is located on either side of the nasal septum and is continuous with the other 3 meatuses

A

common nasal meatus

224
Q

What type of epithelial tissue lines the nasal passages?

A

Ciliated Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

225
Q

Cilia project from the cell surfaces up into a layer of mucus and beat causing the mucus to move toward the:

A

pharynx where it can be swallowed or coughed up

226
Q

Mucus is secreted by what 2 cells/glands in the nasal passages?

A

Mucous glands and Goblet cells

227
Q

Air in the nasal passages is warmed by what?

A

blood flowing through blood vessels just beneath the nasal epithelium

228
Q

Air in the nasal passages is humidified by what?

A

mucus and other fluids on the epithelial surface

229
Q

Turbinates do what?

A

increase surface area and filter air

230
Q

Particles do not readily pass through the air but become trapped in the

A

mucous layer

231
Q

Ciliated outpouchings of the nasal passages contained within spaces in certain skull bones

A

Paranasal Sinuses or sinuses

232
Q

The 2 sinuses are located within the frontal bones. They are common in most species

A

Frontal sinuses

233
Q

These 2 sinuses are located within the maxillary bones. They are common in most species

A

Maxillary sinuses

234
Q

Some animals, including humans, have two more sinuses called

A

sphenoid and ethmoidal sinuses

235
Q

The openings from the sinuses into the nasal passages can swell shut or become plugged with inflammatory debris as a result of allergies, infections, tumors, etc. Fluids in the sinus have nowhere to go and the resulting buildup of pressure is very painful. Tx: antibiotics, decongestants, sx

A

Sinusitis

236
Q

Structure in the upper resp tract. Common passageway for respiratory and digestive systems

A

Pharynx

237
Q

This structure separates the nasal passages from the oral cavity

A

Hard palate

238
Q

Respiratory passageway of the pharynx, dorsal

A

nasopharynx

239
Q

Digestive passageway of the pharynx, ventral

A

oropharynx

240
Q

This structure divides the pharynx into the dorsal and ventral pharynx

A

soft palate

241
Q

Caudal end of pharynx opens dorsally into the _____ and ventrally into the _____

A

Esophagus

Larynx

242
Q

Congenital defect of the hard palate, tissue does not completely close

A

cleft palate

243
Q

Congenital defect of the soft palate

A

elongated soft palate

244
Q

What happens if the soft palate is too long?

A

soft palate gets trapped in the larynx obstructing airflow

245
Q

What breeds is the elongated soft palate common in?

A

Brachycephalic breeds

246
Q

What can be done to fix elongated soft palate?

A

Surgically remove excess soft palate tissue

247
Q

What controls actions of the muscles around the pharynx

A

reflexes

248
Q

What 2 structures work together to prevent swallowing from interfering with breathing and vice versa?

A

Larynx and pharynx

249
Q

Does breathing stop when we swallow?

A

Yes

250
Q

Short irregular tube connecting the pharynx with the trachea. Composed of segments of cartilage that are connected to each other and surrounding tissues by muscles. Supported by hyoid apparatus.

A

Larynx

251
Q

Larynx cartilage: single, leaf-shaped cartilage; projects forward from the ventral portion of the larynx

A

Epiglottis

252
Q

During swallowing, this structure is pulled back to cover the opening of the larynx

A

epiglottis

253
Q

Larynx cartilage: paired cartilages; form boundaries of the glottis along with the vocal cords

A

Arytenoid cartilages

254
Q

Opening of the larynx

A

glottis

255
Q

Larynx cartilage: Adam’s apple, largest cartilage in the larynx

A

thyroid cartilage

256
Q

Larynx cartilage: ring shaped cartilage, most caudal

A

cricoid cartilage

257
Q

Functions of what structure: voice production; prevention of foreign material being inhaled; control airflow to and from the lungs

A

larynx

258
Q

2 connective tissue bands attached to the arytenoid cartilages. Stretched across lumen of larynx parallel to each other. Vibrate as air passes over them

A

Vocal cords

259
Q

Muscles attache to the _______ cartilages control the tension of the vocal cords

A

arytenoid

260
Q

complete relaxation opens the glottis wide. What does this produce?

A

no sound

261
Q

Tightening the tension of the vocal cords produces

A

higher-pitched sounds

262
Q

Lessening the tension of the vocal cords produces

A

lower-pitched sounds

263
Q

During swallowing, ______________ __________ pull the larynx forward and fold the epiglottis back over its opening

A

muscle contractions

264
Q

Short, wide tube that extends from the larynx into the thorax. Divides into the 2 main bronchi that enter the lungs.

A

Trachea

265
Q

When the trachea divides into the 2 main bronchi that enters the lungs. What is this called?

A

Bifurcation

266
Q

What type of muscle is found on the dorsal side of the trachea?

A

smooth muscle

267
Q

What type of cartilage makes up the rings in the trachea?

A

Hyaline cartilage

268
Q

What type of epithelium lines the trachea?

A

ciliated epithelium

269
Q

Cilia in the trachea move trapped material toward the

A

larynx

270
Q

What shape are the rings of hyaline cartilage in the trachea of most species?

A

C-shaped

271
Q

Which species have complete tracheal rings?

A

birds & reptiles

272
Q

What causes a collapsing trachea?

A

weakened cartilage rings

273
Q

In what animals is a collapsing trachea common?

A

toy breeds of dogs

274
Q

What is the Tx for a collapsing trachea?

A

weight loss, restrict activity, use harness instead of collar, bronchodilators, cough suppressants, sx

275
Q

What structures are part of the lower resp tract?

A

bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli

276
Q

Air passages that lead from the bronchi to the alveoli

A

bronchial tree

277
Q

R & L primary bronchus formed by the bifurcation of the trachea

A

bronchi

278
Q

Do the bronchi contain cartilage?

A

yes

279
Q

Each bronchus divides into smaller bronchi, which divide into even smaller bronchi, and then tiny

A

bronchioles

280
Q

Can the diameter of the bronchi and bronchioles be adjusted?

A

Yes, they contain smooth muscle fibers in the walls

281
Q

What nervous system controls smooth muscle fibers in the wall of the bronchial tree?

A

Autonomic nervous system

282
Q

What effect does the sympathetic nervous system have on the airways?

A

Dilates them

283
Q

Bronchial smooth muscle relaxation.

Aids respiratory effort during intense physical activity.

A

Bronchodilation

284
Q

Bronchial smooth muscle partially contracts. Reduces size of air passage. Irritants in inhaled air can cause this.

A

Bronchoconstriction

285
Q

Bronchioles subdivide into _________ which end in ____________

A

Alveolar ducts

Alveoli

286
Q

Do bronchioles and alveolar ducts contain cartilage?

A

No

287
Q

These are the smallest air passageways. They are microscopic and end in groups of alveoli

A

Alveolar ducts

288
Q

Alveoli are arranged like what?

A

bunches of grapes

289
Q

Groups of alveoli are called

A

alveolar sacs

290
Q

Tiny, thin-walled sacs composed of simple squamous epithelium.

A

Alveoli

291
Q

Alveoli are surrounded by networks of _______ composed of simple squamous epithelium

A

Capillaries

292
Q

Do alveoli contain muscle or cartilage to prevent them from collapsing when air moves in and out during breathing?

A

No

293
Q

Alveoli are lined with fluid that contains _________ which reduces surface tension and prevents alveoli from collapsing as air moves in and out

A

surfactant

294
Q

What is the site of external respiration?

A

Alveoli

295
Q

Exchange of O2 & CO2 between the air inhaled into the lungs and the blood flowing through the pulmonary capillaries

A

External respiration

296
Q

Exchange of O2 & CO2 between the blood in the systemic capillaries and all the cell and tissues of the body

A

internal respiration

297
Q

O2 and CO2 movement from higher concentration to lower concentration is an example of what?

A

simple diffusion

298
Q

Hemoglobin that is carrying oxygen. One oxygen molecule is associated with each iron molecule.

A

Oxyhemoglobin

299
Q

Hemoglobin that has released its oxygen.

A

Deoxyhemoglobin

300
Q

What influences the ability of the hemoglobin molecule to carry oxygen? (4)

A

pH, temperature, O2 & CO2 levels

301
Q

CO2 diffuses into RBCs & is transformed into

A

carbonic acid

302
Q

What is the relative pH of venous blood compared to arterial blood?

A

more acidic

303
Q

What vessel carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs?

A

Pulmonary artery (splits into L & R pulmonary arteries -> pulmonary arterioles -> capillaries

304
Q

Oxygenated blood returns to the left side of the heart via the

A

pulmonary veins

305
Q

Pulmonary arteries bringing deoxygenated blood to the lungs for gas exchange with the alveoli

A

Pulmonary circulation

306
Q

Bronchial arteries arise from the aorta and supply O2 to the parenchyma (tissue) of the lung itself.

A

bronchial circulation

307
Q

The tissue of the lung itself

A

Parenchyma

308
Q

This part of the lung lies directly on the cranial surface of diaphragm. It is in the caudal part of the thoracic cavity.

A

Base

309
Q

This part of the lung lies in the cranial portion of the thoracic cavity

A

Apex

310
Q

The lateral surface of each lung is convex or concave?

A

convex

311
Q

In the cat, dog, cow, goat, sheep, and pig, name the lobes of the left and right lungs

A

Left lung: cranial & caudal

Right lung: cranial, middle, caudal & accessory

312
Q

What species has 1 lobe on the left lung, and a main and accessory lobe on the right lung.

A

Horse

313
Q

_____ are distinguished by the major branches of the bronchi

A

Lobes

314
Q

Small, well-defined area on medial side of lung where airways, blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves enter and leave the lung.

A

Hilus

315
Q

This is the only area of the lung that is attached to the body

A

Hilus

316
Q

What is the dorsal boundary of the thoracic cavity?

A

Thoracic vertebrae

317
Q

What are the lateral boundaries of the thoracic cavity?

A

Ribs & intercostal muscles

318
Q

What is the ventral boundary of the thoracic cavity?

A

sternum

319
Q

What is the caudal boundary of the thoracic cavity?

A

Diaphragm

320
Q

The area between the lungs is called

A

mediastinum

321
Q

What lives in the mediastinum?

A

heart, trachea, esophagus, blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic structures

322
Q

The thin membrane that lines the thoracic cavity and covers the organs & structures in the thorax

A

Pleura

323
Q

The pleural layer that covers thoracic organs and structures

A

Visceral layer

324
Q

The pleural layer that lines the cavity

A

parietal layer

325
Q

space between the 2 pleural layers is filled with a small amount of

A

pleural fluid

326
Q

What is it called when there is too much fluid in the pleural space?

A

Pleural effusion

327
Q

What are some causes of pleural effusion?

A

trauma, infection, neoplasia

328
Q

Presence of air in the thorax; this buildup of air puts pressure on the lung, so it cannot expand as much as it normally does when you take a breath resulting in a collapsed lung. What is this condition called?

A

Pneumothorax

329
Q

A collapsed lung is called

A

atelectasis

330
Q

Causes of pneuomothorax

A

penetrating wound into thorax

trauma to airways/lungs

331
Q

TX for pneumothorax

A

thoracocentesis, chest tube

332
Q

Pressure within the thorax in negative with respect to atmospheric pressure, therefore a partial _____ exists within the thorax

A

vacuum

333
Q

Is the the pressure within the thorax positive or negative?

A

negative

334
Q

The vacuum in the thorax does what?

A

pulls lungs tight out against the thoracic wall

335
Q

This type of pressure helps draw blood through veins and into the atria

A

negative intrathoracic

336
Q

Lungs follow passively as movements of the _____ ____ and ________ alternately enlarge and reduce the volume of the thorax.

A

Thoracic wall

Diaphragm

337
Q

The process of drawing air into the lungs

A

inhalation

338
Q

What are the 2 main muscles of inspiration?

A

External intercostal muscles

Diaphragm

339
Q

Thin, dome-shaped muscle sheet with a right and left crus; forms caudal boundary of thorax; separates thorax from abdomen

A

Diaphragm

340
Q

What species don’t have a diaphragm?

A

birds, reptiles

341
Q

process of pushing air out of lungs

A

exhalation

342
Q

What are the 2 main expiratory muscles?

A

Internal intercostal muscles & abdominal muscles

343
Q

Volume of air inspired and expired during one breath (ml/breath)

A

Tidal volume

344
Q

Tidal volume = ___ml/kg

A

10

345
Q

What is tidal volume used to determine?

A

size of bag on anesthesia machine

346
Q

Bag size = _____ x tidal volume

A

5-6

347
Q

What sizes do bags come in for the anesthesia machine?

A

1/2 L, 1 L, 2 L, 3 L

348
Q

Is it better to have a bag too small or too big on an anesthesia machine?

A

too big

349
Q

volume of air inspired and expired during 1 min of breathing

A

Minute Volume

350
Q

MV (ml/min) =

A

TV (tidal volume) x breaths/min

351
Q

volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximum expiration. Lungs cannot be completely emptied of air

A

Residual volume

352
Q

Are the respiratory muscles smooth or skeletal?

A

Skeletal

353
Q

Is breathing voluntary or involuntary?

A

involuntary but can be overriden

354
Q

Breathing is controlled by an area in the ______ _____ of the brain stem known as the ______ _____

A

Medulla oblongata

Respiratory center

355
Q

Within the ______ _____ are individual control centers for inspiration, expiration, and breath holding

A

respiratory center

356
Q

What part of the brain controls respiratory muscle contractions?

A

Respiratory center

357
Q

What 2 systems send feedback to the respiratory center?

A

Chemical and Mechanical control systems

358
Q

Stretch receptors in the lungs set limits on routine resting inspiration and expiration. What control system does this?

A

Mechanical control system

359
Q

This system monitors the blood & only affects the breathing pattern if something gets out of balance. Receptors located in the carotid arteries, aorta, & brain stem monitor CO2, pH, & O2 in blood

A

Chemical control system

360
Q

What is the normal pH of blood?

A

7.4

361
Q

The more CO2 in the blood, the ______ the blood pH. (higher or lower)

A

lower, more acidic

362
Q

Increased CO2 in blood causes decreased blood pH and triggers respiratory center to:

A

increase rate & depth of respiration

363
Q

Decreased CO2 in blood causes increased blood pH and triggers respiratory center to:

A

decrease rate & depth of respiration

364
Q

Decrease in blood O2 level is called

A

Hypoxia

365
Q

Slight hypoxia triggers respiratory center to:

A

increase rate & depth of breathing

366
Q

Neurons of the respiratory center can become so depressed that adequate nerve impulses cannot be sent to the respiratory muscles. Can cause breathing to decrease or stop completely. What condition is this?

A

Severe hypoxia

367
Q

What happens if we are breathing for an animal that is under anesthesia?

A

O2 increases & CO2 decreases telling respiratory center to slow respiration

368
Q

Bagging hyperventilates the patient causing more ____ than normal to be eliminated from the lungs. Decreased ____ causes the patient to stop breathing until the ____ level rises back into normal range

A

CO2

Spring 2014 (12 decks)

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