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A & P > A&P 2 Test 3 > Flashcards

A&P 2 Test 3 Flashcards

1
Q

The digestive system consists of the _____ and is assisted by various _____

A

muscular digestive tract

accessory organs

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2
Q

6 digestive functions

A
  • ingestion
  • mechanical processing
  • digestion
  • secretion
  • absorption
  • excretion
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3
Q

What are the 8 components of the digestive tract

A
  • oral cavity
  • pharynx
  • esophagus
  • stomach
  • small intestines
  • large intestines
  • rectum
  • anus
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4
Q

What functions do the oral cavity, teeth, and tongue play in the digestive tract?

A
  • Mechanical processing of food
  • Moistening of food
  • Mixing food with salivary secretions
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5
Q

What is the function of the liver in the digestive tract?

A
  • Secretes bile

- Stores nutrients

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6
Q

What is an important lipid for digestion?

A

Bile

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7
Q

What is the function of the gallbladder in the digestive tract?

A

Stores and concentrates bile

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8
Q

What is the function of the pancreas in the digestive tract?

A
  • Exocrine cells: secrete buffers and digestive enzymes

- Endocrine: secrete hormones

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9
Q

What is the function of the large intestines in the digestive tract?

A
  • Dehydrates and compacts indigestible materials

- Prepares for elimination

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10
Q

What is the function of the salivary glands in the digestive tract?

A

-Secretes lubricating fluid which also contains enzymes which breaks down carbs

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11
Q

What is the function of the pharynx in the digestive tract?

A

-Provides muscular propulsion of food into the esophagus

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12
Q

What is the function of the esophagus in the digestive tract?

A

-Transports food from the mouth to the stomach

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13
Q

What is the function of the stomach in the digestive tract?

A
  • Breaks down food chemically with acid and enzymes

- Muscles contract to mechanically process and break down food

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14
Q

What is the function of the small intestines in the digestive tracts?

A
  • Digests food further using enzymes

- Absorbs water, organic substrates, vitamins, and ions

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15
Q

What are the four histological layers of the digestive tract?

A
  • Mucosa
  • Submucosa
  • Muscularis externa
  • Serosa
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16
Q

Describe the mucosa histological layer of the digestive tract

A
  • Epithelium

- Lamina propria (connective tissue)

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17
Q

Describe the submucosa histological layer of the digestive tract

A
  • connective tissue
  • nerves
  • blood vessels
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18
Q

Describe the muscularis externa histological layer of the digestive tract

A

-loose connective tissue cover (adventitia)

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19
Q

Describe the serosa histological layer of the digestive tract

A
  • in the peritoneal cavity

- continuous with mesentery

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20
Q

The structure of the digestive tract:

A

slide 6 & 7

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21
Q

How does food move through the digestive tract?

A

Involuntary control and contraction of smooth much of the muscularis externa

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22
Q

What are the two types of movement of food through the digestive tract?

A

Peristalsis

Segmentation

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23
Q

Describe peristalsis

A

Food is propelled along the digestive tract

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24
Q

Describe segmentation

A

Food is churned in the small intestines

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25
Q

The steps of contraction of muscles moving food along the digestive tract:

A

slide 9-12

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26
Q

What are the functions of the oral cavity?

A
  • Sensory analysis of potential foods
  • Mechanically process food using the teeth, tongue and palate
  • lubricate food using mucus in saliva
  • Begins enzymatic digestion with saliva
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27
Q

What is another name for the oral cavity?

A

Buccal cavity

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28
Q

What forms the floor of the oral cavity?

A

The tongue

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29
Q

What forms the roof of the oral cavity?

A

Hard and soft palate

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30
Q

What forms the walls of the oral cavity

A

Buccal mucosa

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31
Q

What is the epithelium of the buccal mucosa?

A

Stratified squamous

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32
Q

What are the specific functions of the tongue?

A
  • Mechanically processes food
  • Manipulates food to assist in chewing and swallowing
  • Provides sensory analysis (taste and texture)
  • Participates in speech
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33
Q

The anatomy of the oral cavity:

A

slides 16 & 17

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34
Q

What are the three pairs of salivary glands?

A
  • Parotid
  • Sublingual
  • Submandibular
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35
Q

What are the functions of saliva?

A
  • Lubricates and cleanses oral cavity
  • Dissolves chemicals
  • Suppresses bacterial growth
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36
Q

Location of salivary glands:

A

slide 19

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37
Q

What is the function of teeth

A

Mastication of food

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38
Q

Mastication

A

Chewing

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39
Q

What ligament anchors teeth to bone?

A

Periodontal ligament

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40
Q

What forms the basic shape of teeth?

A

Dentin

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41
Q

What covers the crown of teeth?

A

Enamel

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42
Q

What covers the root of teeth?

A

Cementum

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43
Q

How many deciduous teeth are humans born with?

A

20

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44
Q

Deciduous teeth

A

Baby teeth

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45
Q

How many secondary teeth do humans have?

A

32

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46
Q

Secondary teeth

A

Adult teeth

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47
Q

The basic structure of teeth:

A

Slides 21-23

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48
Q

What are the functions of the pharynx?

A
  • Passageway for food, drink and air

- Food is propelled along the esophagus towards the stomach during swallowing by pharyngeal muscles

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49
Q

Describe the esophagu

A
  • Muscular tube

- 25 cm long

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50
Q

What is the epithelial lining of the esophagus?

A

Stratified squamous

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51
Q

Where is the esophagus in relation to the trachea?

A

Posterior

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52
Q

Where does the esophagus penetrate the diaphragm at the?

A

Esophageal hiatus

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53
Q

What two structures does the esophagus possess?

A

Upper and lower esophageal sphincters

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54
Q

A circular band of muscle that can pinch close to a muscular tube

A

Sphincter

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55
Q

What are the three steps of swallowing?

A
  • Oral Phase
  • Pharyngeal Phase
  • Esophageal Phase
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56
Q

What happens during the oral phase of swallowing?

A
  • Compaction of bolus

- Food enters the pharynx

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57
Q

What happens during the pharyngeal phase of swallowing?

A
  • Elevation of the larynx
  • Bending of the epiglottis
  • Closing of the glottis
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58
Q

What happens during the esophageal phase of swallowing?

A

-Peristalsis pushes the bolus toward the stomach

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59
Q

Steps of swallowing:

A

slides 27-32

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60
Q

What are the functions of the stomach?

A
  • Temporarily stores ingested food
  • Mechanically breaks down food
  • Breaks down chemical bonds in food using acid and enzymes
  • Production of the intrinsic factor
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61
Q

What occurs during the mechanical breakdown of food in the stomach?

A

Chyme is formed and liquid suspension occurs

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62
Q

Why is intrinsic factor important?

A

Required for vitamin B12 absorption

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63
Q

What are the 4 regions of the stomach?

A
  • Cardia
  • Funus
  • Body
  • Pylorus
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64
Q

What region of the stomach is closest to the heart?

A

Cardia

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65
Q

What region of the stomach is the “hump” on top of the stomach?

A

Fundus

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66
Q

What region of the stomach is shaped like the letter “C”?

A

Body

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67
Q

What region of the stomach is guarded by a guarded by a sphincter at the exit of the stomach?

A

Pylorus

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68
Q

What sphincter guards the exit of the stomach?

A

Pyloric sphincter

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69
Q

The regions of the stomach:

A

slides 34 & 35

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70
Q

What glands in the stomach are involved in secretions?

A

Gastric Glands

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71
Q

What cells are in the gastric glands?

A
  • Parietal
  • Chief
  • Goblet
  • Endocrine
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72
Q

The anatomy of the stomach:

A

slides 37 & 38

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73
Q

What do parietal cells secrete?

A

HCl

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74
Q

What is HCl involved in?

A

Intrinsic factor

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75
Q

What do chief cells secrete?

A

Pepsinogen (an inactive enzyme)

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76
Q

What turns pepsinogen into pepsin?

A

HCl

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77
Q

What do goblet cells produce?

A

mucus

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78
Q

What do endocrine cells produce?

A

Gastrin ( a hormone)

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79
Q

What are the three phases of regulating gastric activity?

A
  • Cephalic phase
  • Gastric phase
  • Intestinal phase
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80
Q

What occurs during the cephalic phase?

A

CNS prepares the stomach to receive food

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81
Q

When does gastric phase occur?

A

When food enters the stomach

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82
Q

What does the intestinal phase do?

A

Controls the pace of gastric emptying

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83
Q

Phases of gastric secretion:

A

slides 40-43

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84
Q

What is the stomach lined with?

A

Highly mitotic cells

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85
Q

What is a short summary of the stomach?

A

The stomach provides for the physical breakdown of food that must precede chemical digestion. Pepsin and acid begin the digestion of proteins. For a variable period of time after food arrives in the stomach, starch continues the digestion that began with salivary amylase

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86
Q

What are the regions of the small intestines?

A
  • Duodenum
  • Jejunum
  • Ileum
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87
Q

What sphincter marks the junction between small and large intestines?

A

Ileocaecal valve

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88
Q

The segments of the small intestines:

A

slide 46

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89
Q

The mucosa of the intestinal wall has transverse folds called…

A

Plicae circulares

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90
Q

Small projections of pilcae

A

Villi

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91
Q

What are the functions of the plicae and villi?

A

Increases surface area of mucosa for absorption

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92
Q

Each villus has a ____ which is called ____

A

Lymphatic capillary

A lacteal

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93
Q

The small intestinal wall:

A

slide 50

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94
Q

Two forms of peristalsis in the small intestines

A

Small-scale and large-scale

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95
Q

Describe small-scale peristalsis

A

Periodic contractions of the muscularis extera

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96
Q

Describe large-scale peristalsis

A

Coordinated by gastroenteric or gastrocolic reflex

97
Q

What are the 3 types of intestinal secretions

A
  • Intestinal juice
  • Mucus
  • Hormones
98
Q

What does intestinal juice do?

A
  • Moistens chime
  • Buffers stomach acid
  • Dissolves digestive enzymes
  • Dissolves products of digestion
99
Q

What are some intestinal hormones in the small intestines?

A
  • Gastrin
  • Secretin
  • Cholecystokinin
  • Gastric Inhibitory Peptide
100
Q

What part of digestion happens in the small intestine?

A

Most enzymatic digestion and absorption

101
Q

What organs release enzymes and buffers for digestion in the small intestines?

A
  • Pancreas
  • Liver
  • Gall Bladder
102
Q

What is a brief summary of the small intestines?

A

The small intestine receives chyme from the stomach and raises its pH. It then absorbs water, ions, vitamins, and the products released from food molecules by the action of digestive enzymes produced by intestinal glands and the pancreas.

103
Q

Where do the pancreatic ducts enter?

A

Duodenum

104
Q

What do pancreatic ducts deliver?

A

Pancreatic juice

105
Q

Pancreatic ducts branch ___

A

Repeatedly

106
Q

Where do fine pancreatic duct branches end?

A

Pancreatic acini

107
Q

What cells are found among the acini of the pancreas?

A

Endocrine cells

108
Q

Anatomy of the pancreas:

A

slide 59

109
Q

What are the two types of secretions from the pancreas?

A
  • Endocrine (hormones)

- Exocrine (digestive)

110
Q

What are some hormones are secreted by the pancreas?

A
  • insulin

- glucagon

111
Q

What are some digestive secretions which come from the pancreas?

A
  • Water
  • Ions
  • Enzymes
112
Q

What are some enzymes secreted by the pancreas

A
  • Carbs
  • Lipases
  • Proteases
  • Nucleases
113
Q

What occurs to control pancreatic secretion?

A

-Chyme enters the duodenum which triggers hormone release, hormones then trigger the release of pancreatic juices

114
Q

Secretin being secreted by the pancreas triggers…

A

Water and bicarbonate

115
Q

CCK being secreted by the pancreas triggers…

A

Enzymes like Amylas, lipase, proteases

116
Q

Brief summary of the pancreas

A

The exocrine pancreas produces a mixture of buffers and enzymes essential for normal digestion. Pancreatic secretion is stimulated by hormones (secretin and CCK) released from the duodenum.

117
Q

What is the largest visceral organ?

A

Liver

118
Q

How many known functions does the liver have?

A

Over 200

119
Q

What are the 4 lobs of the liver?

A
  • Right (largest)
  • Left
  • Caudate
  • Quadrate
120
Q

Anatomy of the liver

A

slides 65 & 66

121
Q

What is a basic functional unit of the liver?

A

Liver lobule

122
Q

Where is the blood supply of the liver coming from?

A
  • Hepatic artery

- Hepatic portal vein

123
Q

In the liver, blood flows past sheets of

A

Hepatocytes

124
Q

What are the blood channels of the liver?

A

Sinusoids

125
Q

Where does blood collect in the liver?

A

Central vein

126
Q

What carries bile towards of the bile ducts in the liver?

A

Bile Canaliculi

127
Q

Where are bile ducts located in the liver?

A

Each lobe has a duct

128
Q

What is formed when liver bile ducts unite?

A

Common Hepatic duct

129
Q

What ducts carry bile from the liver to the gall bladder?

A

Cystic duct

130
Q

What duct carries bile from the liver to the duodenum?

A

Common bile duct

131
Q

How does the liver regulate metabolism?

A
  • Stores absorbed nutrients and vitamins

- Releases nutrients as needed

132
Q

How does the liver carry out hematological regulation?

A
  • Produces plasma proteins

- Removes old RBCs

133
Q

Why does the liver produce bile?

A

It is required for fat breakdown

134
Q

What is the function of the gallbladder?

A

Stores and concentrates bile for release into duodenum

135
Q

How does bile enter the small intestine from the gallbladder?

A

The hepatopancreatic sphincter relaxes

136
Q

Briefly describe the gallbladder

A

The liver is the body’s center for metabolic regulation. It produces bile that will be ejected by the gallbladder into the duodenum under stimulation of CCK. Bile is essential for the efficient digestion of lipids; it emulsifies fats so that individual lipid molecules can be readily attacked by digestive enzymes

137
Q

Know the anatomy of the gallbladder

A

Slides 75 & 76

138
Q

Describe the large intestines?

A
  • Reabsorbs water and compacts feces
  • Absorbs vitamins made by bacteria
  • Stores feces before defecation
139
Q

What are the three parts of the large intestines?

A
  • Cecum
  • Colon
  • Rectum
140
Q

Functions of the cecum

A
  • Collects and stores material from ileum
  • Begins process of compaction
  • Attaches to vermiform appendix
141
Q

Describe the anatomy of the colon

A
  • Larger diameter, thinner wall than small intestine
  • Bears haustra (pouches)
  • Possesses taenia coli (longitudinal bands of smooth muscle)
142
Q

Describe the rectum?

A
  • Expandable for temporary storage of feces
  • Terminates in anal canal
  • Leads to anus
  • Circular muscle forms internal anal sphincter
  • Encircled by skeletal muscle
143
Q

What forms the external anal sphincter?

A

The rectum

144
Q

Know the anatomy of the large intestines

A

Slides 81 & 82

145
Q

What does the large intestine absorb?

A 
Water
Ions
Vitamins
Organic wastes
Bile salts
Toxins
146
Q

What triggers feces to move from the colon to the rectum?

A

Stretching of stomach and duodenum

147
Q

What controls the movement of feces towards the anus?

A

Sphincters

148
Q

What does the stretching of the rectum do?

A

Defecation of reflex

149
Q

Release of feces requires….

A

Relaxation of external anal sphincter

150
Q

Brief description of the large intestines

A

The large intestine stores digestive wastes and reduces their volume by reabsorbing water. Bacteria that live in the large intestine are an important source of vitamins, especially vitamin K, biotin, and vitamin B5

151
Q

What are the two steps of processing nutrients?

A

Mechanical

Chemical

152
Q

Processing to break down physical structure of foods

A

Mechanical processing

153
Q

Processing to break the covalent bonds between food subunits

A

Chemical processing

154
Q

What catalyzes mechanical processing?

A

Enzymes

155
Q

Chemical processing activates….

A

The hydrolysis of large food molecules

156
Q

How are starches/carbs broken down?

A

Amylases

157
Q

What breaks initial disaccharides & trisaccharides into monosaccharides

A

Enzymes

158
Q

Carb absorption is facilitated by

A

facilitated diffusion or co-transport

159
Q

Describe what happens during the processing and absorption of fats

A
  • Bile emulsifies fats to small droplets
  • Lipase hydrolyzes triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides
  • Lipid products form micelles
  • Lipids diffuse into epithelial cells
  • Triglycerides are reformed
  • Secreted as chylomicrons into lacteals
  • Transported in lymph to thoracic duct
160
Q

What are the three things the urinary system eliminates?

A

Nitrogenous wastes
Toxins
Drugs

161
Q

How does the urinary system regulate to maintain homeostasis?

A
  • Water balance
  • Electrolytes
  • Acid-base balance in the blood
  • Blood pressure
  • Red blood cell production
  • Activation of vitamin D
162
Q

Organs of the urinary system

A
  • Kidneys
  • Ureters
  • Urinary bladder
  • Urethra
163
Q

Describe the location of the kidneys

A
  • Against the dorsal body wall
  • At the level of T12 to L3
  • The right kidney is slightly lower than the left
  • Attached to ureters, renal blood vessels, and nerves at renal hilus
  • Atop each kidney is an adrenal gland
164
Q

What are the coverings of the kidneys?

A

Renal capsule

Adipose capsule

165
Q

Surrounds each kidney

A

Renal Capsule

166
Q

Surrounds the kidney
Provides protection
Keeps the kidneys in the correct locations

A

Adipose Capsule

167
Q

Outer region of the kidney

A

Renal Cortex

168
Q

Inside the cortex of the kidney

A

Renal Medulla

169
Q

Inner collecting tube of the kidney

A

Renal pelvis

170
Q

Triangular regions of tissue in the medulla of the kidney

A

Medullary pyramids

171
Q

Extensions of cortex-like material inward of the kidneys

A

Renal Columns

172
Q

Cup-Shaped structures that funnel urine towards the renal pelvis in the kidneys

A

Calyces

173
Q

The structural and functional units of the kidneys

A

Nephrons

174
Q

What structure of the kidneys are responsible for forming urine?

A

Nephrons

175
Q

What are the two main structures of nephrons?

A

Glomerulus

Renal Tubule

176
Q

A specialized capillary bed in the kidney which attaches to arterioles on both sides of the kidneys

A

Glomerulus

177
Q

What are the arterioles in the kidneys which are attached to the glomerulus

A

Large Afferent Arteriole

Narrow Efferent Arteriole

178
Q

What are capillaries in the glomerulus covered with?

A

Podocytes from the renal tubule

179
Q

Where does the glomerulus sit?

A

Within a glomerular capsule

180
Q

Know anatomy of the renal tubule

A

Slide 178

181
Q

Types of nephrons

A

Cortical

Juxtamedullary

182
Q

Describe cortical nephrons

A
  • Located entirely in the cortex

- Includes most nephrons

183
Q

Describe Juxtamedullary nephrons

A

Found at the boundary of the cortex and medulla

184
Q

Describe peritubular capillaries

A

Arise from efferent arteriole of the glomerulus
Normal, low pressure capillaries
Attached to a venule
Cling close to the renal tubule
Reabsorb (reclaim) some substances from collecting tubes

185
Q

What are the three steps of the urine formation processes?

A
  • Filtration
  • Reabsorption
  • Secretion
186
Q

Describe filtration

A

Nonselective passive process
Water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced through capillary walls
Blood cells cannot pass out to the capillaries
Filtrate is collected in the glomerular capsule and leaves via the renal tubule

187
Q

Describe Reabsorption

A

The peritubular capillaries reabsorb several materials
Some reabsorption is passive, most is active
Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule

188
Q

What do peritubular capillaries reabsorb?

A
  • Some water
  • Glucose
  • Amino Acids
  • Ions
189
Q

What materials are not reabsorbed

A
  • Urea
  • Uric Acid
  • Creatinine
  • Excess water
190
Q

Reabsorption in reverse

A

secretion

191
Q

During secretion, some materials move from the peritubular capillaries to

A

renal tubules

192
Q

What is secreted?

A

Hydrogen and potassium ions

Creatinine

193
Q

Materials left in the renal tubule move…

A

toward the ureter

194
Q

What are the characteristics of urine used during medical diagnosis?

A 
Colored somewhat yellow due to the pigment urochrome (from the destruction of hemoglobin) and solutes
Sterile
Slightly aromatic
Normal pH of around 6
Specific gravity of 1.001 to 1.035
195
Q

Describe ureters

A

Slender tubes attaching the kidney to the bladder
Runs behind the peritoneum
Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport

196
Q

The ureters are continuous with the

A

renal pelvis

197
Q

Where do ureters enter the bladder?

A

Posterior aspect

198
Q

Describe the urinary bladder wall

A

Three layers of smooth muscle (detrusor muscle)
Mucosa made of transitional epithelium
Walls are thick and folded in an empty bladder
Bladder can expand significantly without increasing internal pressure

199
Q

Describe the Urethra

A

Thin-walled tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body by peristalsis
Release of urine is controlled by two sphincters

200
Q

What are the two sphincters in the urethra

A

Internal Urethral sphincter

External Urethral Sphincter

201
Q

Involuntary urethra sphincter?

A

Internal

202
Q

Voluntary urethral sphincter

A

External

203
Q

Female urethra length and location

A

3-4cm (1 in)

Along the wall of the vagina

204
Q

Male urethra length and location

A 
20 cm (8 in)
Through the prostate and penis
205
Q

Females function of the urethra

A

Only carries urine

206
Q

Males function of the urethra

A

Carries urine and is passageway for sperm cells

207
Q

Normal amount of water in a young adult female

A

50%

208
Q

Normal amount of water in a young adult male

A

60%

209
Q

Normal amount of water in babies

A

75%

210
Q

Normal amount of water in elderly

A

45%

211
Q

Micturition

A

Voiding

212
Q

What must happen to allow voiding

A

both sphincter muscles must relax

213
Q

Describe voiding

A

The internal urethral sphincter is relaxed after stretching of the bladder
Activation is from an impulse sent to the spinal cord and then back via the pelvic splanchnic nerves
The external urethral sphincter must be voluntarily relaxed

214
Q

Where is intracellular fluid

A

inside cells

215
Q

Where is extracellular fluid

A

Outside cells

216
Q

What are examples of extracellular fluid

A

interstitial fluid

Blood plasma

217
Q

Describe the link between water and salt

A

Changes in electrolyte balance causes water to move from one compartment to another

218
Q

Describe maintenance of water balance

A

-water intake must equal water output

219
Q

Sources for water instake

A
  • ingested foods and fluids

- water produces from metabolic processes

220
Q

Sources of water output

A
  • Vaporization out of the lungs
  • lost in perspiration
  • leaves the body in the feces
  • urine production
221
Q

If water intake is excessive…

A

Dilute urine is produced

222
Q

If large amounts of water are lost….

A

Less urine (concentrated) is produced

223
Q

Proper concentrations of various electrolytes….

A

must be present in urine

224
Q

Regulation of water and electrolyte is primarily due to

A 
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents excessive water loss in urine
Aldosterone regulates sodium ion content of extracellular fluid
225
Q

Cells in the kidneys and hypothalamus are active monitors

A

water and electrolyte reabsorption

226
Q

Blood pH must remain between….

A

7.35-7.45

227
Q

pH too high

A

Alkalosis

228
Q

pH too low

A

Acidosis

229
Q

Most ions originate as….

A

Byproducts of cellular metabolism

230
Q

Most acid-base balance is maintained by…

A

the kidneys

231
Q

Blood buffers and respiration are

A

acid-base controlling systems

232
Q

Describe blood buffers

A

Molecules react to prevent dramatic changes in hydrogen ion (H+) concentrations
Bind to H+ when pH drops
Release H+ when pH rises

233
Q

Three major chemical blood buffer systems

A

Bicarbonate buffer system
Phosphate buffer system
Protein Buffer System

234
Q

Describe renal mechanisms of Acid-base balance

A

Excrete bicarbonate ions if needed
Conserve or generate new bicarbonate ions if needed
Urine pH varies from 4.5 to 8.0

235
Q

Functional kidneys are developed by…

A

month three

236
Q

Urinary system of a newborn

A

bladder is small

Urine cannot be concentrated

237
Q

When does the control of the voluntary urethral sphincter start?

A

18 mos.

238
Q

What are the only common issue with the urinary bladder before old age

A

UTI

239
Q

Describe aging and the urinary sytem

A

There is a progressive decline in urinary function
The bladder shrinks with aging
Urinary retention is common in males

A & P (7 decks)

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