7. RM Key Words Flashcards
Aims
A statement of which researchers intend to find out in a research study.
Bar chart
A graph used to represent the frequency of data.
Behaviour categories
Dividing a target behaviour into a subsect of specific and operationalised behaviours.
Bias
A systematic distortion.
Calculated value
The value of a test statistic calculated for a specific data set.
Case study
A research investigation that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event
Closed questions
Questions which have a predetermined range of answers
Confederate
An individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by a investigator
Confidentiality
Concerns the communication of personal info from one person to another, and trust the info will be protected
Confounding variable
A variable that is not the IV but varies systematically with the IV. Changes in DV may be due to the confounding variable.
Content analysis
A kind of observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly written or verbal material such as interviews, conversations, books, diaries or TV programmes
Continuous variable
A variable that can take on any value within a certain range (ie liking football on a scale of 1-10 is continuous whereas the football team someone supports isn’t)
Control Group
The control group is composed of participants who do not receive the experimental treatment
Controlled observation
A form of observation in which behaviour is observed but under conditions where certain variables have been organised by the researcher
Correlation
Determining the extent of an association between two variables
Correlation coefficient
A no. between -1 and 1 that tells us how closely the co-variables in a correlational analysis are associated
Cost-benefit analysis
A systematic approach estimating the negatives and positives of any research
Counterbalancing
An experimental technique used to overcome order effects when using a repeated measures design. Ensures each condition is tested first
Co-variable
Variables in a correlation which vary (change) and are measured, and neither one is set or controlled by the researcher.
Covert observation
Observing people without their knowledge. Prevents people altering their behaviour when they know they’re being observed.
Critical value
In an inferential test to the value of the test statistic that must be reached to show significance.
Curvilinear correlation
A non-linear relationship between co-variables
Debriefing
A post research interview
Designed to inform patients of the true nature of the study
It is a means of dealing with ethical issues
Deception
A patient is not told what the true aims of the study are
Cannot give truly informed consent
Demand characteristics
A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims
Helps patients work out what the researcher expects to find
Dependent variable [DV]
A measurable outcome of the independent variable in an experiment
Directional hypothesis
States the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or two groups of participants
Ecological validity
A form of external validity
Concerns the ability to generalise a research effect beyond the particular setting which it is demonstrated, to other settings
Established by mundane realism
Effect size
A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables
Ethical guidelines (code of conduct)
A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity
Ethical issues
Concern questions of right and wrong
They arise in research where there are a conflicting set of values in the aims of the study etc
Ethics committee
A group of people in a research institution that must approve a study before it begins
Event sampling
An observational technique in which a count is kept of the no. times a certain behaviour occurs
Experiment
A research method where causal conclusions can be drawn as an IV has been manipulated to have an effect on the DV
Experimental design
A set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as participant variables in an experiment
External validity
The degree to which a research finding can be generalised
i.e to other settings (ecological validity), groups of people (population validity) or over time (historical validity)
Extraneous variable [EV]
Do not vary systematically with the IV
Do not act as an alternative IV but may affect the DV
They are nuisance variables that make experiments more difficult, i.e some participants are more intelligent than others
Field experiment
A controlled experiment
IV is controlled (manipulated) DV is not controlled
Have lower internal validity (difficult to control confounding and extraneous variables)
Has higher external/ecological validity (greater mundane realism) as participants are unaware they’re participating
Fraction
A method of expressing parts of a whole
Generalisation
Applying the findings of a particular study to the population
Histogram
Type of frequency distribution
The no. scores in each category of continuous data are represented by vertical columns
No
Historical validity
The time period that the study is taking place
Hypothesis
A precise and testable statement about the assured relationship between variables
Operationalisation is a key part of making the statement testable
Independent group design
Participants are allocated to two (or more) groups representing different levels of the IV
Allocations are usually done using random techniques
Independent variable [IV]
An event that is directly manipulated by an experimenter in order to test its effect on another variable (the DV)
Informed consent
Participants must be given comprehensive info concerning the nature + purpose of the research + their role in it
So they can therefore make an informed decision about whether to participate
Internal validity
The degree to which an observed effect was due to the experimental manipulation rather than other factors
i.e. confounding/ extraneous variables
Inter-observer reliability
This refers to the degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same behaviour
Called inter-observer reliability when referring to observational research
Intervening variable (third variable/ moderator)
A variable that comes between two other variables, used to explain the association between those two variables
i.e. if a positive correlation is found between ice cream sales + violence the intervening variable would be heat which causes the rise in both
Interview
A research method/ technique that involves a face to face ‘real time’ interaction with another individual
Results in the collection of data
Interview bias
The effect of an interviewer’s expectations
communicated unconsciously on a repondants behaviour
Investigator effects
Anything an investigator does that has an effect on a participant’s performance in the study other than what was intended
Includes direct effects and indirect effects
This may act as a confounding or an extraneous
Laboratory experiment
Controlled IV and DV (In a controlled setting)
High internal validity as almost all variables are controlled
Low ecological validity as participants are aware they’re being studied, tasks are more artificial
Linear correlation
A systematic relationship between co-variables that is defined by a straight line
Matched pairs design
Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age/ IQ
One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and and the second person is allocated to the other condition
Mean
The arithmetic average of data set
Takes the exact values of all the data into account
Measure of dispersion
A descriptive statistic that provides info about how spread out a set of data are
Measures of central tendency
A descriptive statistic that provides information about a ‘typical’ value for a data set
Median
The middle value of a set of data when the items are placed in a ranked order
Meta-analysis
A researcher looks at the findings from a number of different studies and procedures a statistic to represent the overall effect
Mode
The most common value or item in a data set
Mundane realism
Refers to how a study mirrors the real world
The research environment is realistic to the degree which experiences encountered in the research environment will occur in the real world
Natural Experiment
Neither IV or DV ar controlled - the experimenter does not manipulate either
Low validity as there is little control
Naturalistic observation
An observation carried out in an everyday setting, in which the investigator does not interfere in any way but merely observes the behaviours in question
Negative correlation
Describes a correlation where, as one co-variable increases, the other decreases
Negative skewed distribution
Most of the scores are bunched towards the right
The mode is to the right of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the left
Non-directional hypothesis
Predicts simply that there is a difference between two conditions or two groups of participants, without stating the direction of the difference
Non-participant observation
The observer is separate from the people being observed
Normal distribution
A symmetrical bell shaped distribution
This distribution occurs when certain variables are measured, such as IQ or the life of a light bulb
Such ‘events’ are distributed in such a way that most of the scores are clustered close to the mid-point; the mean, median and mode are at the mid-point
Observer bias
Observers’ expectations affect what they see or hear
This reduces the validity of observations
One-tailed test
Form of test used with a directional hypothesis
Open questions
Questions that invite respondents to provide their own answers rather than select those provided
Tend to produce qualitative data
Operationalise
Ensuring the variables are in a form that can be easily tested
i.e A concept such as ‘educational attainment’ needs to specified to investigate it, for example it could be operationalised as ‘GCSE grade in maths’
Opportunity sample
A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study
Order effect
In a repeated measures design, an extraneous variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented i.e a practice effect or fatigue effect
Order of magnitude
A means of expressing a number by focussing on the overall size
This is done by expressing the number in terms of powers of 10
Overt observation
Observational studies where participants are aware that their behaviour is being studies
Participant observation
Observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed, which may affect their objectivity
Peer review
The practice of using independent experts to assess the quality and validity of scientific research and academic reports
Percentage
A method of expressing parts of a whole
Pilot study
A small-scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements
Population
The group of people that the researcher is interested in
The group of people from whom a sample is drawn
The group of people about whom generalisations can be made
Population validity
A form of external validity
It concerns the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalised to other groups of people besides those who took part in the study
Positive correlation
Refers to the instance in a correlation of covariables both increasing together
Positive skewed distribution
Most of the scores are bunched towards the left
The mode is to the left of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the right
Presumptive consent
A method of dealing with lack of deception or lack of informed consent
This is done by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in this study
If this group of people consent to the procedures in the proposed study, it is presumed that the real participants would also have agreed
Primary data
Info observed or collected first hand
Privacy
A person’s right to control the flow of info about themselves
Probability (p)
A numerical measure of the likelihood or chance that certain events will occur
Protection from harm
During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects
i.e. physical injury, lowered self esteem or embarrassment
Qualitative data
Info in words that cannot be counted or quantified
Qualitative data can be turned into quantitative data by placing them in categories and counting frequency
Quantitative data
Info that represents how much, how long or how many, etc there are of something
i.e. a behaviour is measured in numbers or quantities
Quasi-experiment
Controlled DV uncontrolled IV (i.e. gender)
Studies that are ‘almost’ experiments, the IV just exists and is uncontrolled
The researcher investigates the effect of the ‘Quasi-IV’ on a DV
Lack of manipulation in IV means casual conclusion can only be tentatively drawn
Questionnaire
Data is collected through the use of written questions
Random allocation
allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques
Random sample
A sample of participants produced by using a random technique
i.e. every member of the target population being tested has an equal chance of being selected
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest item in a data set
Ratio
A method of expressing parts of a whole
Repeated measures design
Each participant takes part in every condition under test
i.e. every level of the IV
Review
A consideration of a no. studies that have investigated the same topic in order to reach a general conclusion about a particular hypothesis
Right to withdraw
Participants can stop participating if they are uncomfortable in anyway
Especially important in cases where it was not possible to give fully informed consent
Participants should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data they produced
Sampling
The method used to select participants such as; random, opportunity or volunteer sampling or to sample behaviours in an observation such as an event or time sampling
Scattergram
A graphical representation of the association (correlation) between two sets of scores
Secondary data
Info used in a research study that was collected by someone else or for a purpose other than the current one
i.e. published data collected in the past
Sign test
A statistical test to determine the significance of a sample of related items of data
Significance
A statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong for us to accept the research hypothesis under test
Significant figure
Refers to the no. important single digits used to represent a number
The digits are ‘important’ because, if removed, the number would be quite different in the magnitude
Skewed distribution
A distribution is skewed if one tail is longer than another, signifying that there are a number of extreme values to one side or the other of the mid score
Social desirability bias
A distortion in the way people answer questions
They tend to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light
Standard deviation
Shows the amount of variation in a data set
It assesses the spread of data around the mean
Standardised procedures
A set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order to be able to repeat the study
This includes standardised instructions - the instructions given to participants to tell them how to perform the task
Stratified sample
A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population
Participants are then randomly selected from the subgroups
Structured interview
Any interview in which the questions are decided in advance
Structured observation
A researcher uses various systems to organise observations, such as behavioural categories and sampling procedures
Systematic sample
A sample obtained by selecting every nth person
This can be a random sample if the first person is selected using a random method; you then select every nth person after that
Table of critical values
A table that contains the numbers used to judge significance
The calculated value of the test statistic is compared to the number in the table to see if the calculated value is significant
Test statistic
A statistical test is used to calculate a numerical value
For each test this value has a specific name nuch as s for sign test
Time sampling
An observational technique in which the observer records behaviours in a given time frame
e.g. noting what a target individual is doing every 15 or 20 seconds
The observer may select one or more behavioural categories to tick at this time interval
Two-tailed test
Form of test used with a non-directional hypothesis
Unstructured interview
The interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions
Lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions
Validity
Refers to whether an observed effect is a genuine one
Volunteer bias
A form of sampling bias because volunteer participants have special characteristics
i.e. usually being more highly motivated than randomly selected participants
Volunteer sample
A sample of participants that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample
Also called a self selected sample
Zero correlation
A correlation where the co-variables are not linked
