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4. Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is cultural relativism?

A

The view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates

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2
Q

What is Deviation from social norms?

A

Abnormal behaviour is seen as a deviation from unstated rules about how on ‘ought’ to behave. Anything that violates these rules is considered abnormal

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3
Q

What is DSM?

A

(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) A list of disorders that is used to diagnose mental disorders. For each disorder a list of clinical characteristics is given - ie the symptoms

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4
Q

What is Statistical infrequency?

A

Abnormality is defined as those behaviours that are extremely rare ie any behavior that id found found in very few people is regarded as abnormal

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5
Q

What is psychopathology?

A

Psychopathology is the scientific study of psychological disorders (‘pathology’ is the study of disease)

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6
Q

Why is diagnosing psychological disorders more difficult than diagnosing physical disorders?

A

Physical has certain symptoms - it is difficult to diagnose if someone is ‘ill’ - in what way does their behaviour differ from what is normal

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7
Q

How is abnormality determined using statistics?

A

By the presence of several of the characteristics

The most obvious way being in terms of statistical infrequency

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8
Q

What are descriptive statistics?

A

The mean, median and mode

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9
Q

What are descriptive statistics used for?

A

To represent the typical value in any set of data

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10
Q

How do we define aspects of what is normal?

A

By referring to typical values

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11
Q

What can statistics inform us about?

A

I.e. average shoe size for 10 year olds

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12
Q

How can we gain an idea of what is abnormal using statistics?

A

By defining what is most common or normal which then gives an idea of what is not common/abnormal

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13
Q

What do we consider statistical norms?

A

The distribution of data and how the curve fits, if it has a normal distribution we consider it normal vice versa

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14
Q

What are social norms?

A

These are norms created by a group of people and thus are ‘social’

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15
Q

Why are social norms formed?

A

As there are standards of acceptable behaviour in any society which are set by the social group and adhered to by the social group

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16
Q

What is deviation from social norms?

A

Anyone who behaves differently (deviates) from the socially created norms is classed abnormal

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17
Q

Give an example of a social norm and why it is good

A

Politeness

Politeness means good relationships form, people who behave rudely are considered to be behaving in a socially deviant way

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18
Q

What are the two types of ways social norms can be enforced?

A
  • Implicit rules (i.e. not laughing at a funeral)

- Laws (e.g. causing disorder in public is against the law)

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19
Q

Give an example of social norms changing

A

In the past homosexuality was classified as abnormal and was regarded as a mental disorder - this judgment was based on social deviation

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20
Q

Give 3 evaluation points for statistical infrequency

A
  • Some abnormal behaviours are desirable
  • The cut-off point is subjective
  • Statistical infrequency is sometimes appropriate
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21
Q

Give 3 evaluation points for deviation from social norms

A
  • Susceptible to abuse
  • Deviance is related to context and degree
  • There are some strengths
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22
Q

What are the 4 definitions of abnormality?

A
  • Statistical infrequency
  • Deviation from social norms
  • Failure to function adequately
  • Deviation from ideal mental health
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23
Q

What is deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Abnormality is defined in terms of mental health, behaviours that are associated with competence & happiness

Ideal mental health would include a positive attitude towards the self, resistance to stress and accurate perception of reality

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24
Q

What is failure to function adequately?

A

People are judged on their ability to go about daily life

If they can’t do this and are also experiencing distress then it is considered a sign of abnormality

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25
Q

Who was Marie Jahoda?

A

She came up with deviation from ideal mental health

(1907-2001) Born in Vienna, Austria, to a Jewish family & fled to the US at the start of WW2. She later worked at the university of Sussex & developed the first department of social psychology in Britain

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26
Q

What is being unable to cope with everyday living as a definition of abnormality?

A

Failure to function adequately

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27
Q

What is coping with everyday life considered?

A
  • Eating regularly
  • Washing clothes
  • Getting up for a job or some form of activity
  • Being able to communicate with others
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28
Q

What does not functioning adequately cause?

A

It causes distress for the individual

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29
Q

What is considered abnormal based on statistical infrequency?

A

An individual who is outside the normal (two standard deviations away from the mean)

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30
Q

What is depression?

A

A mood disorder where an individual feels sad/lacks interest in their usual activities

Further characteristics:

  • Irrational negative thoughts
  • Raised or lowered activity levels
  • Difficulties with concentration, sleeping & eating
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31
Q

What is obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?

A

An anxiety disorder where anxiety arises from both obsessions and compulsions

Compulsions are a response to obessions & the person believes the compulsions will reduce anxiety

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32
Q

What are phobias?

A

A group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of anxiety in response to a particular stuimulus/group of stimuli

The anxiety interferes with normal living

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33
Q

What group of disorders do phobias come over?

A

Phobic disorders are included in ‘anxiety disorders’

It’s a group of mental disorders that share the primary symptom of extreme anxiety

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34
Q

What is the primary symptom of phobias?

A

Extreme anxiety

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35
Q

How do phobias affect someone’s actions?

A

They are instances of irrational fears that produce a conscious avoidance of the feared object/situation

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36
Q

What is agoraphobia?

A

Fear of being trapped in public place where escape is difficult

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37
Q

What is social phobia?

A

Anxiety related to social situations such as talking to a group of people

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38
Q

What are specific phobias?

A

Fears about specific objects such as spiders or snakes, or specific situations such as heights or the dark

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39
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?

A

Primary characteristic: marked & persistent - likely to be unreasonable

Coupled with fear are feelings of panic & anxiety

These emotions are cued by the specific object or situation & are out of proportion

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40
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?

A

Avoidance, freezing or fainting

The fight, flight or freeze response

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41
Q

Why do people freeze when they have a phobia of something?

A

It is an adaptive response because a predator may think the prey is dead

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42
Q

What is avoidance (in terms of phobias)?

A

When a person with a phobia is faced with the object/situation that creates fear the immediate response is to avoid it

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43
Q

How does avoidance affect people with phobias?

A

Avoidance in the feared situation interferes significantly with the persons routine, occupation, social activities or relationships

There is also marked distress

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44
Q

How are phobias distinguished from normal everyday fears?

A

There is marked distress and they interfere with normal day to day living unlike everyday fears

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45
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Learning through association

A neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus & is able to produce a conditioned response

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46
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

Learning through reinforcement/punishment

If a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence then that behaviour is more likely to occur again in the future

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47
Q

What is the two process model?

A

A theory that explains two processes that lead to the development of phobias

They begin through classical conditioning & are maintained through operant conditioning

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48
Q

What is flooding?

A

A form of behavioural therapy used to treat phobias & other anxiety disorders

Client is exposed to (or imagines) an extreme form of the threatening situation under relaxed conditions until the anxiety reaction is extinguished

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49
Q

What is systematic desensitisation?

A

A form of behavioural therapy used to treat phobias & other anxiety disorders

Client is gradually exposed to (or imagines) the threatening situation under relaxed conditions until the anxiety is extinguished

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50
Q

What is the ABC model?

A

A cognitive approach to understanding mental disorder

Focuses on the effect of irrational beliefs on emotions

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51
Q

What is the negative triad model?

A

A cognitive approach to understanding depression

Focusses on how negative expectations (schema) about self, world abs future lead to depression

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52
Q

What is a schema?

A

A cognitive framework that helps organise & interpret info in the brain

A schema helps an individual to make sense of new info

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53
Q

What is cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)?

A

A combo of cognitive therapy & behavioural therapy

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54
Q

What is cognitive therapy?

A

A way of changing maladaptive thoughts & beliefs

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55
Q

What is behavioural therapy?

A

A way of changing behaviour in response to these thoughts & beliefs

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56
Q

What are irrational thoughts?

A

Rational thinking is flexible & realistic - where beliefs are based in fact & logic

Irrational thinking is rigid & unrealistic and lacks internal consistency

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57
Q

What is concordance rate?

A

Measure of genetic similarity

e.g. 100 twin pairs, one twin of each pair has a phobic disorder - the no. their other twin also shows the illness determines the concordance rate (if 40 have phobic disorder, concordance rate is 40%)

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58
Q

What is dopamine?

A

One of the key neurotransmitters in the brain, with effects on motivation and ‘drive’

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59
Q

What is a gene?

A

A part of a chromosome of an organism that carries info in the form of DNA

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60
Q

What is a neurotransmitter?

A

Chemical substances that play an important part in the workings of the nervous system by transmitting nerve impulses across a synapse

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61
Q

What is GABA?

A

Gamma-aminobutyric acid

A neurotransmitter that regulates excitement in the nervous system - acting as a natural form of anxiety reducer

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62
Q

What is noradrenaline?

A

A neurotransmitter found mainly in areas of the brain that are involved in governing autonomic nervous system activity

e.g. blood pressure or HR

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63
Q

What is serotonin?

A

A neurotransmitter implicated in many different behaviours & physiological processes, including aggression, eating behaviour, sleep & depression

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64
Q

What are the 3 main groups of drugs to treat OCD?

A
  • SSRIs (antidepressants)
  • Tricyclics (antidepressants)
  • Benzodiazepines (anti-anxiety drugs)
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65
Q

What is the biological approach to treating OCD?

A

Drug therapy e.g. SSRIs

66
Q

What are the most commonly used drugs to treat OCD?

A

SSRIs - also commonly used for depression

67
Q

What are low levels of serotonin associated with?

A

Depression and OCD

68
Q

How do SSRIs help OCD?

A

They increase levels of serotonin which regulates mood & anxiety

69
Q

What does SSRI stand for?

A

Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors

70
Q

What are the two neurotansmitters that can cause OCD?

A
  • Dopamine when levels are too high

- Serotonin when levels are too low

71
Q

What are the 3 types of drugs used/perscribed for OCD?

A

SSRIs
Tricyclics
Benzodiazepines

72
Q

What does SSRI stand for?

A

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors

73
Q

What are the most commonly used drugs to treat OCD and depression?

A

SSRIs

74
Q

Give 3 examples of SSRIs

A
  • Fluoxetine (e.g. Prozac)
  • Sertraline (e.g. Zoloft)
  • Citalopram (e.g. Celexa)
75
Q

How do SSRIs work?

A

They block the reuptake of serotonin from synapses while allowing other processes to continue

Leads to a “build-up” in synapses as it cannot be removed

76
Q

Why do some people not have enough serotonin - leading to OCD?

A

The patient removes serotonin too quickly or they don’t produce enough

77
Q

How do Tricyclics compare to SSRIs?

A

They are commonly used for OCD but are more powerful than SSRIs so are rarely prescribed first

78
Q

Give two examples of Tricyclics

A
  • Amitriptyline (e.g. Elavil)

- Clomipramine (e.g. Anafranil)

79
Q

How do Tricyclics work?

A

They block reuptake of serotonin and noradrenaline

Works as both NT are in the same chemical family

Causes them to build up in synapses, increasing their effects

80
Q

How does increased serotonin on OCD patients help them (relating to Tricyclics?

A

Gives them better impulse control

81
Q

How does increased noradrenaline in OCD patients help them (relating to Tricyclics)?

A

Helps patients feel “awake” & motivated (helps with often-comorbid depression)

82
Q

How are charges in neurons changed in summation?

A

They are changed by ion exchange (making the neurons +ive or -ive)

83
Q

What is summation?

A

At the end of synaptic transmission there are inhibitory/excitatory signals that cuase the cell to fire (complete the action) if enough build up

84
Q

What are the most common ions that change the charge in neurons during summation?

A

Cl- (negative)
K+ (positive)
Na+ (positive)

85
Q

What is depolarisation?

A

Excitatory neurotransmitters allow Na+ to enter the neuron

86
Q

What are the stages of a cell being reset after summation?

A
  • Excitatory NTs allow Na+ to enter the neuron (depolarisation)
  • Neuron becomes +ive inside the membrane (EPSP ->AP)
  • This opens channel to let K+ ions out
  • Outside of cell becomes more +ive
  • Cell is “reset” (hyperpolarised)
87
Q

What are BZs used for?

A

Are used for a range of anxiety disorers; including panic disorder, addiction withdrawl & OCD

88
Q

Give 3 examples of BZs

A

Alazopram (e.g. Xanax)

Diazepam (e.g. Valium)

Lorazepram (e.g. Ativan)

89
Q

How do BZs work?

A

They mimick GABA

90
Q

What is the process of BZs mimicking GABA?

A
  • Bind to receptors with chloride channels, casing them to open; GABA normally does this
  • -ive chloride ions (Cl-) flood intothe postsynaptic cell
  • Created IPSP (hyperpolarisation), reducing neuron activity; addressing impulsivity & anxiety
91
Q

What does GABA do?

A

Causes IPSP (hyperpolarisation) by opening channels that let negatively-charged ions through the membrane

92
Q

What is GABA?

A

An inhibatory neurotransmitter

93
Q

What is OCD classed as?

A

An anxiety disorder characterised by obsessive thinking & repetitive behaviours

94
Q

What are obsessions?

A

Internal componenets as they are intrusive thoughts (something you think)

95
Q

What are compulsions?

A

External components as they are repetivite behaviours (something you do) - these reduce anxiety

96
Q

How does the biological apprach explain OCD?

A

It sees abnormal conditions such as OCD, as being similar to physical illness caused by abnormal biological processes

97
Q

What are the two main biological explanations for OCD?

A
  • Neural explanations

- Genetic explantions

98
Q

What are neural explanations (biological approach)?

A

The occurrence of OCD through abnormal functioning of neural (brain) mechanisms & neurotransmitters

99
Q

What are genetic explanations (biological approach)?

A

Hereditary influences through genetic transmission from parent to offspring

100
Q

What are the two genes in the biological approach to explaining OCD?

A

COMT and SERT (5-HTT)

101
Q

What does the COMT gene produce and how does this affect OCD patients ?

A

An enzyme that degrades dopamine

People with OCD can’t degrade dopamine properly

102
Q

Do people with OCD have the COMT gene?

A

No - they have a low activity variant of this gene

103
Q

How does the COMT gene cause OCD?

A

COMT degrades dopamine and people with OCD have a low activity version of this gene

Therefore dopamine levels build up in the synapse and are very high

104
Q

What does the SERT gene produce?

A

A protien that transports serotonin back to the presynaptic neuron (reuptake)

105
Q

Do OCD patients have the SERT gene?

A

No - they have a high activity variant of this gene

106
Q

What happens if serotonin is removed too quickly?

A

It results in lower levels recieved & a shoerte duration of serotonin’s effects

107
Q

How does the SERT gene affect OCD patients?

A

The SERT gene in OCD patients is a high activity variant

It removes serotonin too quickly & results in a shorter duration of serotonins effects

108
Q

What is the genetic explanation fo OCD?

A

There are genes that are thoguth to contribute to OCD as they impact neurotransmitter levels

109
Q

What are the two neurotransmitters involved in OCD?

A

Dopamine and Serotonin

110
Q

How do serotonin levels affect OCD?

A

Lower levels of serotonin in the brain are also associated with OCD

111
Q

How do dopamine levels affect OCD?

A

Abnormally high dopamine levels are found in people with OCD

112
Q

What sort of neurotransmitter is dopamine?

A

An excitatory neurotransmitter

113
Q

What sort of neurotransmitter is serotonin?

A

An inhibatory neurotransmitter

114
Q

What does dopamine control?

A
  • Reward
  • Movement
  • Memory
  • Waking up
115
Q

What does serotonin control?

A
  • Appetite
  • Control of behavioural impulses
  • Mood
116
Q

Where is serotonin released to?

A

It is released into emotional, memory & muscle-control areas

117
Q

What is serotonin’s main behavioural function?

A

Imoulse control

118
Q

Where is dopamine released into?

A

Emotional, executive & memory areas

119
Q

What is dopamine’s main function?

A

Habit forming

120
Q

What are the 3 abnormal brain circuits in OCD?

A
  • OFC
  • Thalamus
  • Caudate nucleus
121
Q

What is the OFC (relating to OCD)?

A

Sends signal to the thalamus about things that are worrying

122
Q

What is the Thalamus (relating to OCD)?

A

Leads to impulse to act & then to stop activity when the impulse lessens

123
Q

What is the Caudate nucleus (relating to OCD)?

A

Normally suppresses signals from the OFC

If damaged, it fails to do this & so the thalamus is alerted about minor worry signals

It sends signals back to the OFC acting as a worry circuit

124
Q

Which part of the brain must be damaged for a worry cicuit to occur?

A

The Caudate nucleus (surppresses worry signals) is damaged

OFC and Thalamus form a worry loop

125
Q

What is the COMT OCD process?

A

COMT - activity low ->

Dopamine - levels high ->

Caudate nucleus - overactive ->

Hypervigilance - anxiety ->

Obsessive thoughts

126
Q

What is the SERT OCD process?

A

SERT - activity high ->

Serotoning - levels low ->

Obritofrontal cortex - underactive ->

Impulsiveness ->

Compulsive behaviour

127
Q

What is diathsis-stress?

A

The idea of a simple link between one gene & a complex disorder like OCD is unlikely

128
Q

What does diathesis-stress suggest?

A

Each individual gene only creates a vulverability (diathesis) for OCD along with other conditions

Other factors (stressors) affect what condition develops or indeed whether mental illness develops

129
Q

What is humanism?

A

Modern secular belief system that treats human experience as the ultimate source of meaning

130
Q

What sort of approach does humanist healthcare use?

A

A “person centred appraoch” - the patient’s subjective feelings are what matters

131
Q

How does humanism account for cultural relativism?

A

By considering individuals’ happiness above fixed diagnostic tools

132
Q

Who proposed deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Jahoda (1958)

133
Q

What does Jahoda look at specifically in her deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Her definition looks at the positives rather than the negatives - the idea of mental health rather than mental illness

134
Q

What did Jahoda beleive her 6 major criteria for ideal mental health promoted?

A

She believed they promoted psychological health & well-being, enabling an individual to feel happy (free of distress) & behave competently

135
Q

What did Jahoda think would happen to a person who lacked any of her 6 criteria?

A

They vould be vulnerable to mental disorder & therefore abnormal

The more characteristics they fail to meet & the further they are from realising them, the more abnormal they are

136
Q

What were the 6 major criteria that Jahoda promoted in her theory?

A
  1. Self-attitudes
  2. Self-actualisation
  3. Integration
  4. Autonomy
  5. Accurate perception of reality
  6. Mastery of the environment
137
Q

Define Self-attitudes (Jahoda’s 6 categories)

A

Having high self-esteem & a strong sense of identity, high self-respect & a +ive self concept

138
Q

Define Self-actualisation (Jahoda’s 6 categories)

A

The extent to which an individual develops their full capabilities

i.e. fulfilling their potential

139
Q

Define Integration (Jahoda’s 6 categories)

A

Being able to cope with stressful situations

140
Q

Define Autonomy (Jahoda’s 6 categories)

A

Being independent & self-reliant and able to make personal decisions

141
Q

Define having an accurate perception of reality (Jahoda’s 6 categories)

A

Perceiving the world in a non-distorted fashion

Having an objective & realistic view of the world

142
Q

Define Mastery of the environment (Jahoda’s 6 categories)

A

Being competent in all aspects of life - being able to meet the demands of any situation

e.g. ability to love, function at work etc

143
Q

What is depression generally characterised by?

A

Low mood & low energy levels

144
Q

What is the cognitive approach to explaning depression?

A

Cognitive scientists are most concerned w how irrational thinking (cognitions) leads to depression

145
Q

What are the two major cognitive approaches to exaplaining depression?

A
  • Ellis’ ABC model (1962)

- Beck’s negative triad (1967)

146
Q

What does Ellis believe irrational beliefs are due to in his ABC model?

A

Mustabatory thinking

147
Q

What is mustabatory thinking?

A

These are cognitions containing fixed terms

e.g. I NEED a partner or I am unlovable, I MUST receive +ive feedback or I am worthless

148
Q

What is Ellis’s ABC model in a rational thinker?

A 
A = Activating event
B = rational Belief
C = Concequence
149
Q

What is Ellis’s ABC model in an irrational thinker (someone who has depression)?

A 
A = Activating event 
B = irrational Belief
C = Concequence
150
Q

What are the two cognitive processes predicted by Beck’s negative triad?

A
  • Ruminating

- Catastrophising

151
Q

Define ruminating

A

Repetitive circular thinking with each thought feeding the next

152
Q

Define catastrophising

A

Irrationally -ive view and/or perception of situations

153
Q

What are the key aspects of Beck’s negative triad?

A
  • Perception of self
  • Perception of future
  • Perception of world
    (arranged in a tringle which -ive shcema in the middle)

Sorry max I can’t put in pictures bc I don’t have pro I’m poor lol :) just imagine it

154
Q

What does the -ive core schema in Beck’s triad lead to?

A

It leads to negative cognitive biases

155
Q

How do negative cognitive biases affect us (Becks triad)?

A

-ive cognitive biases affet our perception, causing irrational perception of events

156
Q

What are the limitations of the cognitive approach to explaining depression?

A
  • Biological = genes (5-HT) & Amygdala
  • Behavioural = Learned helplessness
  • Humanist (counselling) = low self-esteem & poor self-belief
157
Q

How had Beck’s theory helped CBT?

A

It formed the basisof CBT - all cognitive elementsof depression can be identified & challanged in CBT

Modern CBT has a 75% sucess rate for depression

158
Q

How had Ellis’ theory helped CBT?

A

His theory led to sucessful CBT, his idea that by challanging the negative, irrational beliefs a person can reduce their depression

Is supported by research

159
Q

What are cognitions?

A

They are theoretical constructs, so we can’t directly interact with them

160
Q

What is CBT?

A

Cognitive behavioural therapy

Is a talking therapy that aims to identify irrational core beliefs & uses practical activities to challange & change them

161
Q

How can we challange cognitions?

A

We can use behavioural training to help challenege & modify cognitions indirectly

The process is collaborative - we need the patient’s engagement

162
Q

How does CBT help patients?

A

Assists patients to identify irrational thoughts & change them

Psychology AS (9 decks)

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