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Psychology AS > 3. Attachment > Flashcards

3. Attachment Flashcards

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1
Q

What did research in the 1970s demonstrate about infants interacting with their caregivers?

A

That infants coordinated their actions with caregivers in a kind of conversation

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2
Q

Give an example of a researcher in the 1970s who demonstrated that infants reciprocate caregivers actions

A

Jaffe et al. (1973)

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3
Q

What is an example of reciprocity relating to babies?

A

From birth, babies move in a rhythm when interacting with an adult - almost as if they were having a conversation

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4
Q

What did Brazelton (1979) suggest about the rhythms that infants have?

A

That the basic rhythm babies have is an important precursor to later communications

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5
Q

What does the regularity of an infant’s signals allow a caregiver to do?

A

To anticipate the infant’s behaviour and respond appropriately

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6
Q

What does the sensitivity of an infant’s behaviour lay the foundations for?

A

For later attachment between caregiver and infant

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7
Q

What is attachment?

A

An emotional bond between two people - it is a two way process that endures over time. It leads to certain behaviours such as clinging + proximity-seeking and serves the function of protecting an infant

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8
Q

What is a caregiver?

A

Any person who is providing care for a child, such as a parent, grandparent, sibling etc

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9
Q

What is interactional synchrony?

A

When two people interact they mirror what the other is doing in terms of their facial + body movements. Includes limiting emotions as well as behaviours - this is described as synchrony, when 2+ things move in the same pattern

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10
Q

What is reciprocity?

A

Responding to the action of another with a similar action, where the actions of one partner elicit a response from the other partner - responses are not necessarily similar as in interactional synchrony

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11
Q

Who conducted the first systematic study of interactional synchrony?

A

Meltzoff and Moore (1977)

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12
Q

What did Meltzoff and Moore’s study of interactional synchrony show?

A

Found that infants as young as 2 or 3 weeks imitated specific facial and hand gestures

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13
Q

How was Meltzoff and Moore’s study of interactional synchrony conducted?

A

An adult model displayed 1 of 3 facial expressions or hand movements - A dummy placed in the infants mouth to prevent any initial response

Following the display the dummy was removed + the child’s expressions filmed - they found there was an association between the infant behaviour and that of the model

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14
Q

What did Meltzoff and Moore’s second study of interactional synchrony (1983) show?

A

Infants as young as 3 days old showing interactional synchrony

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15
Q

What did the results of Meltzoff and Moore’s second study of interactional synchrony (1983) show?

A

The fact that infants as young as 3 days old were displaying the behaviours would appear to rule out the possibility that interactional synchrony are learned

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16
Q

What did Meltzoff and Moore propose about interactional synchrony with infants?

A

They proposed that the imitation was intentional - the infant is deliberately copying the other person

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17
Q

What did Jean Piaget believe about interactional synchrony with infants?

A

He disagreed with Meltzoff and Moore - he believed that true imitation only developed towards the end of the first year

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18
Q

What did Jean Piaget think about interactional synchrony with infants before the end of their first year?

A

Any imitation before the end of the first year was a kind of ‘response training’

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19
Q

What was ‘response training’ talked about by Jean Piaget?

A

What the infant is doing is repeating a behaviour that was rewarded

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20
Q

Who discussed Pseudo-imitation?

A

Jean Piaget

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21
Q

How could the data collected in Schaffer and Emerson’s study be unreliable?

A

It was based off mother’s self reports of their infants

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22
Q

How could the mother’s self reports in Schaffer and Emerson’s study make the data bias?

A
  • Some mothers might have been less sensitive to their infant’s protests + less likely to report them
  • Demand characteristics
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23
Q

How would the mother’s self reports affect the validity of Schaffer and Emerson’s study?

A

This would create a systematic bias which would challenge the validity of the data

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24
Q

What is Pseudo-imitation?

A

Any imitation before the end of the first year was a kind of ‘response training’ - an infant is repeating a behaviour that was rewarded

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25
Q

Why did Piaget think that babies use pseudo-imitation?

A

The infant had not consciously translated what they see into a matching movement

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26
Q

Who presented Meltzoff and Moore’s view in a study?

A

Murray and Trevarthen (1985)

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27
Q

What did the first part of Murray and Trevarthen’s study involve?

A

Two-month-old infants first interacted with their mother via a video monitor in real time

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28
Q

What did the second part of Murray and Trevarthen’s study involve?

A

The video monitor played a tape of the mother so that the image on the screen was not responding to the infant’s facial and bodily gestures

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29
Q

What did the results of Murray and Trevarthen’s study show?

A

Showed that the infant is an active and intentional partener in the mother-infant interaction

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30
Q

What did the infant’s response to the mother not reacting in Murray and Trevarthen’s study show?

A

The result was acute distress for the infant

This shows the infant actively eliciting a response rather than displaying a response that has been rewarded

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31
Q

What are the 5 main evaluations of interactional synchrony etc?

A
  • Problems with testing infant behaviour
  • Failures to reciprocate
  • Intentionally supported
  • Individual differences
  • The value of the research
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32
Q

What are multiple attachments?

A

Having more than one attachment figure

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33
Q

What is a primary attachment figure?

A

The person who has formed the closest bond with a child, demonstrated by the intensity of the relationship

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34
Q

Who is usually the primary attachment figure? How can this vary?

A

The biological mother

Other people can fulfil this role ie father or grandparents

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35
Q

What is separation anxiety?

A

The distress shown by an infant when separated from their caregiver. Not necessarily the child’s mother

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36
Q

What is stranger anxiety?

A

The distress shown by an infant when approached or picked up by someone unfamiliar

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37
Q

When did Schaffer and Emerson conduct their study?

A

In the 1960s

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38
Q

Who theorised the stages of attachment?

A

Schaffer and Emerson

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39
Q

What are the 4 stages of attachment?

A
  • Indiscriminate attachment
  • The beginnings of attachment
  • Discriminate attachment
  • Multiple attachments
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40
Q

When is the indiscriminate attachment stage?

A

From birth until about 2 months

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41
Q

What is the infant like in the indiscriminate attachment stage?

A

Infants produce similar responses to all objects, whether they are animate or inanimate

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42
Q

Towards the end of indiscriminate attachment, what is the infant like?

A

Infants begin showing greater preference for social stimuli (ie a smiling face) and to be more content when they are with people

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43
Q

During the indiscriminate attachment stage, how do infants begin to form relationships?

A

During this period of time reciprocity and interactional synchrony play a role in establishing the infant’s relationships with others

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44
Q

What age do infants reach the beginnings of attachment?

A

Around the age of 4 months the infant becomes more social

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45
Q

What sort of company do infants prefer in the beginnings of attachment stage?

A

They prefer human company to inanimate objects - they can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar people

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46
Q

How easily comforted are infants in the beginnings of attachment?

A

They are still relatively easily comforted by anyone - do not yet show stranger anxiety

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47
Q

What is the most distinctive feature of the beginnings of attachment?

A

The infant’s general sociability (enjoyment of being with peeps)

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48
Q

When do infants reach the discriminate attachment stage?

A

By 7 months

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49
Q

What is a sign of infants reaching the discriminate attachment stage?

A

Separation anxiety

They begin to show a distinctly different sort of protest when one particular person puts them down - joy at reunion with that person

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50
Q

Which stage do infants form an attachment to their primary attachment figure?

A

Discriminate attachment

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51
Q

What do infants develop when they reach the discriminate attachment stage?

A
  • Separation anxiety

- Stranger anxiety

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52
Q

What is an infant having stranger anxiety a sign of?

A

A specific attachment having formed

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53
Q

What did Schaffer and Emerson find with primary attachments?

A

Primary attachments were not always with the person the child spends the most time with

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54
Q

How did Schaffer and Emerson show how mother’s interaction with their children affected their attachment?

A

Interactive mothers had v strong bonds with their children

Less interactive mothers had poor attachments to their child

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55
Q

From observing mothers interacting with their children, what did Schaffer and Emerson conclude was most important for a healthy relationship?

A

They concluded that the quality of the relationship, not the quantity mattered the most in forming an attachment

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56
Q

What % of infants did Schaffer and Emerson find that their first specific attachment was their mother?

A

65%

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57
Q

What % of infants did Schaffer and Emerson find that their first joint object of attachment was their mother?

A

30%

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58
Q

What % of infants did Schaffer and Emerson find that their first joint object of attachment was their father?

A

27%

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59
Q

What % of infants did Schaffer and Emerson find that their first specific attachment was their father?

A

3%

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60
Q

When does the multiple attachments stage occur?

A

Very soon after the main attachment is formed

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61
Q

What happens in the multiple attachments stage?

A

The infant forms a wider circle of multiple attachments depending on how many consistent relationships they have

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62
Q

What did Schaffer and Emerson find about multiple attachments forming in their study?

A

Within one month of first becoming attached , 29% of infants had multiple attachments to someone else

Within 6 months it rose to 78%

By 1 year majority of infants formed multiple attachments

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63
Q

When was Lorenz’s study on geese?

A

1935

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64
Q

What was the aim of Lorenz’s 1935 study?

A

Investigate infant attachment in geese

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65
Q

What are the levels of the IV in Lorenz’s 1953 study?

A

IV(1) - Chick raised from birth by mother

IV(2) - Chick raised from birth by Lorenz

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66
Q

What is the DV in Lorenz’s 1935 study?

A

The chicks follow mother or Lorenz

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67
Q

What were the results of Lorenz’s 1935 study?

A

Chick always followed the first adult they saw - the effect seemed permenant

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68
Q

What were the conclusions from Lorenz’s 1935 study?

A

There is a critical period just after birth when infants imprint on the first adult they came into contact with

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69
Q

What do animal studies in attachment look at?

A

The formation of early bonds between non-human parents and their offspring

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70
Q

Why can we use animal studies to understand attachment in humans?

A

Attachment like behaviour is common to a range of species - through evolution

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71
Q

What is imprinting?

A

An innate readiness to develop a strong bond with the mother which take place during a specific time in development

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72
Q

If imprinting doesn’t happen what will happen?

A

It probably won’t happen - there is a critical period. It will be irreversible + long lasting

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73
Q

What is sexual imprinting?

A

The idea that imprinting can affect adult mate preferences - animals will choose to mate with the same kind of object upon which they were imprinted

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74
Q

When was Harlow’s study with monkeys?

A

1959

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75
Q

What was the aim of Harlow’s 1959 study?

A

Investigate infant attachment in memory

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76
Q

What were the levels of IV in Harlow’s 1959 study?

A

IV(A) - Food on wire mother (4 monkeys)

IV(B) - Food on cloth mother (4 monkeys)

IV(C) - Stranger anxiety/sec. base (scary robot/new toys)

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77
Q

What are the DV’s of Harlow’s 1959 study?

A

DV 1/2 - time spent with mother

DV 3 - Secure base behaviour + mother choice

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78
Q

What were the results of Harlow’s 1959 study?

A

All monkeys spent much longer with clothe mother regardless of food location

All used cloth mother for comfort + explored new toys more willingly with cloth mother in room

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79
Q

What were the conclusions of Harlow’s 1959 study?

A
  • Infants seek comfort over food
  • There’s a critical period for attachment and attachment is crucial
  • Lack of mother resulted in abnormal development
  • Recovery only possible if mother attachment formed in the first 3 months
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80
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Learning through association - a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus and is able to produce a conditioned response

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81
Q

What is a learning theory?

A

The name given to a group of explanations (classical or operant conditioning), which explain behaviour in terms of learning rather than any inborn tendencies or higher order thinking

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82
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

Learning through reinforcement

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83
Q

What is a social learning theory?

A

Learning through observing others + imitating behaviours that are rewarded

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84
Q

What is the learning theory of attachment?

A

A set of ideas from the behaviourist approach

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85
Q

What do behaviourists believe about attachment?

A

That we are born as blank slates + so everything can be explained in terms of experiences we have

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86
Q

What do behaviourists prefer to focus on in attachment?

A

Explanations of behaviour rather than might or might not be going on in their minds because it is more objective + allows more control

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87
Q

List the steps of conditioning attachment

A

Step 1 (before conditioning)

  • Food (UCS) –> Baby happy (UCR)
  • Mother (NS) –> Baby no response
Step 2 (during conditioning)
- Mother (NS) + food (UCS) --> Baby happy (UCR) 
Step 3 (After conditioning)
- Mother (CS) --> Baby (CR)
88
Q

In operant conditioning what is positive reinforcement?

A

Increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated because it involves a reward for behaviour

89
Q

In operant conditioning what is negative reinforcement?

A

Removal/escape from unpleasant consequences

90
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

Learning to repeat a behaviour, or not, depending on its consequences

91
Q

In operant conditioning, what happens if a behaviour produces a pleasant consequence?

A

If a behaviour produces a pleasant consequence, that behaviour is more likely to be repeated

92
Q

In operant conditioning, what happens if a behaviour produces an unpleasant consequence?

A

If a behavior produces an unpleasant consequence, it is less likely to be repeated

93
Q

Draw a positive reinforcement loop for a baby

A
  1. Baby performs action: crying
  2. Baby receives reward: food relieves hunger
  3. The reward reinforces the action, so the baby repeats it

This loops round

94
Q

Draw a negative reinforcement loop for a baby

A
  1. Baby cries + mum performs action: feeding + cuddling
  2. Mum received reward: baby stops crying
  3. The removal of distress reinforces the action, so the mum repeats it

This loops round

95
Q

What is drive reduction?

A

When we feel discomfort, this creates a drive to reduce this discomfort

96
Q

Draw a drive reduction chain

A
  1. Need (for food)
  2. Drive (hunger)
  3. Drive-reducing behaviours (eating)
97
Q

What is the example of classical conditioning to do with babies?

A

The mother becomes the neutral stimulus after the baby is conditioned with food

98
Q

How can the social learning theory explain attachment?

A
  • We might observe role models with whom we identify, being rewarded for caring behaviours
  • The mediational process of modelling allows vicarious reinforcement
  • Imitation results in direct reinforcement
99
Q

Give an example of a primary reinforcer for a baby

A

Food is a primary reinforcer because it directly supplies a reward

100
Q

Give an example of a secondary reinforcer for a baby

A

The mother/caregiver who supplied the food is associated with the food do they become the secondary reinforcer

101
Q

What is the continuity hypothesis?

A

The idea that emotionally secure infants go on to be emotionally secure, trusting and socially confident adults

102
Q

What is the critical period?

A

A biologically determined period of time, during which certain characteristics can develop. Outside of this time window such development will not be possible

103
Q

What is the internal working model?

A

A mental of the world which enables individual to predict and control their environment. In the case of attachment the model relates to a person’s expectations about relationships

104
Q

What is monotropy?

A

The idea that the one relationship that the infant has with their primary attachment figure is of special significance in emotional development

105
Q

What is a social releaser?

A

A social behaviour or characteristic that elicits caregiving and leads to attachment

106
Q

Who was John Bowlby?

A

A psychiatrist in London, treating emotionally disturbed children

107
Q

When was Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment?

A

1969

108
Q

Lorenz’s research on imprinting led Bowlby to believe what?

A

It led Bowlby to believe that a similar process operating in humans

109
Q

Why did Lorenz believe that attachment behaviour evolved?

A

It serves an important survival function - an infant who is not attached is less well protected

110
Q

If our distant infant ancestors did not attach what did Bowlby believe was the risk?

A

Our distant infant ancestors would have been in danger if they did not remain close to an adult

111
Q

Why is it important that attachments form in two directions?

A

The caregiver must be want to care for the infant as the infant is attached to them

112
Q

Why must parents be attached to their infant?

A

Parents must also be attached to their infants in order to ensure that they are cared for + survive

113
Q

Which parents are likely to produce subsequent generations according to Bowlby?

A

Only the parents who look after their offspring

114
Q

What happens during the critical period?

A

Babies have an innate drive to become attached - innate behaviours usually have a special time period (critical period) for development

115
Q

How long did Bowlby say the critical period for attachment lasted?

A

3-6 months

116
Q

What did Bowlby suggest would happen to children who do not form attachments during the critical period?

A

They seem to have difficulty forming relationships later on

117
Q

For learning theorists, what was an important factor of attachment?

A

Food

118
Q

What did Bowlby propose mainly determines attachment?

A

Sensitivity

119
Q

What influenced Bowlby to believe sensitivity was a key factor is attachment?

A

Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation

120
Q

What did the results of Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation lead her to believe?

A

Her observations of mothers led her to suggest that the infants who seemed most strongly attached were the ones whose mothers were more responsive, more cooperative and more accessible than less closely attached infants

121
Q

Why did Bowlby think social releasers are important during the critical period?

A

They are important during this time to ensure that attachments develop from parent to infant

122
Q

Give an example of a social releaser that Bowlby discussed

A

Smiling and having a ‘babyface’ - all of which are social releasers

123
Q

Why do babies perform social releasers?

A

They are innate mechanisms that explain how attachments to infants are formed

124
Q

What did Bowlby propose that monotropy was?

A

That infants have one special emotional bond - the primary attachment relationship

125
Q

Who did Bowlby suggest was usually the child’s primary attachment?

A

Often the biological mother - but not always

126
Q

Why did Bowlby propose that infants form secondary attachments?

A

As they provide an emotional safety net and are important for healthy psychological and social development

127
Q

What are the key things that Bowlby proposed in his theory?

A
  • Critical period
  • Social releasers
  • Monotropy
128
Q

What is the importance of monotropy?

A

That an infant has one special relationship & forms a mental representation of this relationship called an internal working model

129
Q

What are the consequences of an internal working model?

A

1 - in the short term it gives the child insight into the caregiver’s behaviour & enables the child to influence the caregiver’s behaviour, so that a true partnership can be formed

2- In the long term it acts as template for all future relationships because it generates expectations about what intimate, loving relationships are like

130
Q

What does the continuity hypothesis in Bowlby’s theory propose?

A

That individuals who are strongly attached in infancy continue to be socially & emotionally content

Infants who are not strongly attached have more social & emotional difficulties in childhood & adulthood

131
Q

Who conducted The Strange Situation study?

A

Mary Ainsworth et al. (1971, 1978)

132
Q

Why did Ainsworth devise the strange situation?

A

To be able to systematically test the nature of attachment

133
Q

What was the aim of the strange situation?

A

To see how infants (aged 9-18 months) behave under conditions of mild stress & also novelty

134
Q

What sort of observation was the strange situation?

A

A controlled observation - designed to measure the security of attachment that a child displays towards a caregiver

135
Q

What is the room in Ainsworth’s strange situation like?

A

A 9x9 foot space, often marked off into 16 squares to help record the infant’s movements

136
Q

How many stages are there in Ainsworth’s strange situation?

A

8

137
Q

What happens in the first stage of Ainsworth’s strange situation?

A

Mother & infant go into a room - mothersits & baby on the floor to explore

138
Q

What happens in the second stage of Ainsworth’s strange situation?

A

Stranger enters room & talks to mother

139
Q

What happens in the third stage of Ainsworth’s strange situation?

A

Mother leaves the room & stranger leans forward to engage & play with the infant

140
Q

What happens in the fourth stage of Ainsworth’s strange situation?

A

Mother leaves room - stranger comforts baby if they get upset

141
Q

What happens in the fifth stage of Ainsworth’s strange situation?

A

Mother returns to room - stranger leaves

142
Q

What happens in the sixth stage of Ainsworth’s strange situation?

A

Mother leaves infant alone

143
Q

What happens in the seventh stage of Ainsworth’s strange situation?

A

Stranger returns to comfort baby

144
Q

What happens in the eighth stage of Ainsworth’s strange situation?

A

Mother returns - stranger leaves

145
Q

What are the 3 attachment types that Ainsworth discussed?

A
  • Insecure-avoidant attachment
  • Secure attachment
  • Insecure-resistant attachment
146
Q

What are insecure-avoidant infants like?

A
  • Explore freely - don’t seek prox/sec. base
  • Little to no reaction to mother leaving/entering
  • Little stranger anxiety
  • Do not require comfort at reunion
147
Q

What are secure infants like?

A
  • Explore happily - go back to caregiver
  • Moderate separation anxiety
  • Moderate stranger anxiety
  • Require comfort from caregiver in reunion
148
Q

What are insecure-resistant infants like?

A
  • Seek proximity - explore less
  • Huge separation + stranger anxiety
  • Resist comfort when reunited
149
Q

Who participated in the strange situation studues?

A

100 middle-class infants and their mothers

150
Q

How did Ainsworth divide the children into the 3 attachment types?

A

She categorised their behaviours and 3 clear categories emerged

151
Q

How internally valid is Ainsworth’s strange situation?

A

Ainsworth said her experiment measures attachment type

Main et al. (1981) found kids showed different “types” with mothers/fathers

152
Q

What is the inter-rater reliability of Ainsworth’s strange situation?

A

Ainsworth’s 3 observed scores had a correlation of 0.94 - they were 94% consistent

A good score is usually 0.8

153
Q

What was the 4th types of attachment that Ainsworth missed but later added?

A

Disorganised attachment

154
Q

What were disorganised attached infants like?

A
  • Fears proximity
  • Avoidant + resistant
  • Little/no sense of safety in relationships
  • Inability to self-regulate emotion
  • Seem dazed
155
Q

What were disorganised attached infants like as infants?

A
  • Fear proximity in relationships
  • Fear showing vulnerability
  • Angry
  • Emotionally distant
156
Q

Which type did Ainsworth say was the best sort of attachment?

A

Secure

157
Q

Who did Mary Ainsworth have an influence on and how did this affect them?

A

John Bowlby - it provided him important evidence for his theory

She provided Bowlby with the concept of the attachment figure as a secure base which an infant can explore the world

Pointed to the importance of maternal sensitivity

158
Q

How did Bowlby and Ainsworth differ in what they focussed on?

A

Bowlby focussed on the universality of attachments

Ainsworth was interested in individual differences - the different attachment types

159
Q

Is Ainsworth’s method of assessing children used now?

A

Her method of assessing attachment type continues to be the standard test used in a great number of studies of attachment

160
Q

What are cultural variations?

A

The ways that different groups of people vary in terms of their social practices, and the effects these practices have on development and behaviour

161
Q

What did Bowlby think about culture in his theory?

A

Culture was an issue of central importance in his theory because the theory suggests that attachment evolved to provide the biological function of protection for the infant, thus enhancing survival

162
Q

If attachment was a biological and innate process what would attachment be like?

A

Secure attachment should be the optimal form for all humans, regardless of cultural variations

163
Q

If attachments are found in particular cultures and not others, what would attachment be like?

A

This would suggest that attachment is not innately determined but related to different child rearing methods used in different cultures

164
Q

Who conducted the study on cultural variations?

A

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988)

165
Q

How did Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg conduct their study?

A

The conducted a meta-analysis of the findings from 32 studies of attachment behaviour

They overall studied 2,000 strange situations in 8 different countries

166
Q

What were Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg studying?

A

They were interested to see whether there would be evidence that inter-cultural differences did exist

They were also interested in intra-cultural differences

167
Q

What are inter-cultural differences?

A

Differences between countries and cultures

168
Q

What is intra-cultural differences?

A

Differences in the findings from studies conducted within the same culture

169
Q

What did Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg find overall in their study (with reference to variations between cultures)?

A

The differences were small however there were variations overall

170
Q

What did Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg find was the most common type of attachment in all countries?

A

Secure attachment

171
Q

What did Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg find was the second most common type attachment in each country?

A

Insecure-avoidant was second most common - except in Israel and Japan

172
Q

Which type of attachment was second most common in Israel and Japan and how does this relate to their cultures?

A

Insecure-resistant - they were both classed as collectivist countries at the time

173
Q

What conclusion did Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg draw about cultural variations in attachment?

A

The global pattern across cultures appears to be similar to that found in the US - secure attachment is the norm, it is the most common found in all countries

Results support the idea that secure attachment is the best for healthy social and emotional development

Cultural similarities support that attachment is an innate & biological process

174
Q

Name another study that supports Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s finding of cultural similarity

A

Tronick et al. (1992) - cultural similarity

175
Q

What was the Tronick et al. study?

A

Studied an African tribe, the Efe, from Zaire who live in extended family groups

The infants were looked after & breastfed by different women but usually slept with their own mother at night

176
Q

What were the findings of Tronick et al.’s study?

A

Despite such differences in child rearing practices the infants, at 6 months still showed one primary attachment

177
Q

Name two studies that support Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s finding of cultural differences

A

Grossman and Grossman (1991)

Takahashi (1990)

178
Q

What was found in Grossman and Grossman’s study?

A

Higher levels of insecure attachment amongst German infants than in other cultures

179
Q

Why did Grossman and Grossman believe German infants may have higher levels of insecure attachments?

A

Due to different childrearing practices

German culture believes keeping some interpersonal distance between parents and children - infants do not engage in proximity-seeking behaviours in the strange situation

They therefore appear to be insecurely attached

180
Q

What did Takahashi look at in his study?

A

They used the strange situation to study 60 middle-class Japanese infants & their mothers

181
Q

What did Takahashi find in his experiment?

A

Similar rates of secure attachment to those found by Ainsworth

Japanese infants showed no evidence of insecure-avoidant

High rates of Insecure-resistant (32%)

182
Q

How did the Japanese infants react to being left alone in Takahashi’s study?

A

They were particularly distressed being left alone, in fact their response was so extreme that for 90% of the infants, the study was stopped at this point

183
Q

What might account for cultural variations in infant attachment?

A

Different childcare practices

In Japan infants rarely experience separation from their mothers - this would be why they were more distressed in the strange situation than their American counterparts

This would make them seem insecurely attached

184
Q

What conclusions can be drawn about cultural variations in attachment?

A

That despite the fact that there are cultural variations in infant care arrangements - strongest attachments still formed with the infant’s mother

185
Q

What is deprivation?

A

To lose something

In the context of child development deprivation refers to the loss of emotional care that is normally provided by a primary caregiver

186
Q

Who proposed the theory of maternal deprivation?

A

Bowlby (1951, 1953)

187
Q

What did John Bowlby propose in his maternal deprivation theory?

A

He proposed that prolonged emotional deprivation would have long-term consequences in terms of emotional development

188
Q

What are the 3 main parts of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

A
  • The value of maternal care
  • Critical period
  • Long-term consequences
189
Q

What evidence did Bowlby use for his findings of the value of maternal care?

A

His 44 thieves study and other previous research

190
Q

What did the findings from Bowlby’s 44 thieves study help Bowlby to find out about separation (maternal care)?

A

No one had really considered the long-term importance that the effects of separation would have on infants and children until this study

191
Q

Before Bowlby’s research into maternal care what was considered that a baby needed?

A

Good standard of food and physical care was the key to good care

If children were separated from their caregivers then all that was necessary was to maintain this standard

192
Q

What did Bowlby believe was required to ensure normal development of a child?

A

He believed that keeping children well-fed, safe and warm wasn’t enough

He believed infants needed a ‘warm, intimate and continuous relationship’ with their mother - this would ensure normal mental health

193
Q

What did Bowlby famously say about “mother love”?

A

“Mother love infancy and childhood is as important for mental health as are vitamins and proteins for physical health”

194
Q

When is the critical period according to Bowlby?

A

Up to the age of 2 and a half

Continuing risk up to the age of 5

195
Q

What did Bowlby believe would happen to a child who is denied maternal care due to prolonged separations?

A

They may become emotionally disturbed - especially if this happens in the critical period

196
Q

What conditions must be in place for a child to become emotionally disturbed due to lack of maternal care?

A
  • Before the age of 2 and a half (critical period)
  • No substitute mother-person available
  • Continuing risk up to the age of 5
197
Q

What did Bowlby suggest were the long term concequences of deprivation?

A

Emotional maladjustment or even mental health problems such as depression

This was demonstrate in his key study

198
Q

What was Bowlby’s key study for maternal deprivation?

A

The 44 juvenile thieves

199
Q

Who conducted the Romanian Orphan studies?

A

Ritter et al. (2011)

200
Q

What are orphan studies?

A

Concern children placed in care - an orphan is a child whose parents have either died or abandoned them

201
Q

How did so many children become orphaned in Romania?

A

In 1966 President Nicolas Ceausescu incentivised Romanian women to have more children & banned abortions

Romania was a very poor country, so many families could not support these children

202
Q

How did Nicolae Ceausescu incentivise women to have more babies?

A

Mothers of >5 babies got large tax cuts

Mothers of >10 babies became “heroine mothers”

203
Q

What happened to all the children who were born after being promoted by Ceausescu?

A

Romania’s 1989 revolution overthrew Ceausescu

All unwanted children were later discovered in government-run institutions

Children had experienced far more than maternal deprivation & allowed unique opportunity to study the total absence of critical period care

204
Q

What sort of study was Rutter et al.‘s?

A

A longitudinal natural study - of the long term effects of institutionalisation & maternal depression

205
Q

What is institutionalisation?

A

Refers to effects of living in an institutional setting e.g. hospital, orphanage, where children live for long continuous periods of time

Often very little emotional care provided

206
Q

What are the effects of institutionalisation?

A
  • Physical underdevelopment
  • Intellectual under functioning/low IQ
  • Poor parenting
  • Disinhibited attachment
  • Lack of internal working model
  • Emotional functioning
  • Quasi-autism
207
Q

How does physical underdevelopment affect children who have been institutionalised?

A

Children in institutional care are usually phsically small

Lack of emotional care rather than poor nourishment causes what has been called developmental dwarfism

208
Q

How does intellectual underfunctioning/low IQ affect children who have been institutionalised?

A

Children in institutional care often show signs of intellectual disability disorder as identified by Bowlby

209
Q

How does poor parenting affect children who have been institutionalised?

A

Study by Quinton et al. (1984) compared group of 50 women who were reared in institutions (children’s homes) with a cont. group of 50 women reared at home.

When the women were in their 20s, it was found that the ex-institutional women were experiencing extreme difficulties as parents. For example, more of them had children who spent time in care

210
Q

How does disinhibited attachment affect children who have been institutionalised?

A

Form of insec. attachment where children are friendly & affectionate to people they know & strangers

May also be attention seeking & clingy

Thought this is an adaption to living with mulriple caregivers during sensitive period of attachment

In poor quality institutions, a child may have 50 carers none of whom they see enough to form sec. attachment

211
Q

How does lack of internal working model affect children who have been institutionalised?

A

Children in institutional care may have difficulty interacting w peers & forming close relationships

212
Q

How does emotional functioning affect children who have been institutionalised?

A

Children in institutional care sometimes show affectionless psychopathology - idetified by Bowlby

More likely to have temper tantrums

213
Q

How does quasi-autism affect children who have been institutionalised?

A

Children in institutional care sometimes have difficulty understanding the meaning of social contexts & may display obsessional behaviour

214
Q

Compare the main differences between insitutional care & family care

A

Institutional care:

  • No attachment figure
  • Bored
  • Not cared for well
  • Less sociable & interactions
  • Fewer toys

Family care:

  • Strong emotional attachment
  • Well stimulated
  • Cared for well
  • Lots of socialising & interactions
  • More toys
215
Q

What were some of the horrifying coditions that the Romanian orphan children experianced?

A
  • Bedrooms infested w fleas & rats
  • Children subject to sexual & physical abuse
  • Rain would often come through the roof
  • At 18 most orphans kicked out onto the street to fend for themselves
216
Q

What was the conclusion of Rutter et al.’s study?

A

Long term concequences may be less severe than was thought IF children have opportunity to form attachments

When children don’t form attachments, consequences are likely to be severe

Appears children can recover & may be slower development rather than irreversible damage

Psychology AS (9 decks)

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