5. Approaches In Psychology Flashcards
When was Wilhelm Wundt alive?
1932-1920
Who was Wilhelm Wundt?
The first person to call himself a psychologist
What did Wundt believe?
All aspects of nature - including the human mind could be studied scientifically
What did Wundt’s approach pave the way for?
The acceptance of psychology as a distinct science in its own right
Due to Wundt’s approach, what was the preferred method of studying human behaviour?
Experimental psychology
Where was Wundt’s laboratory?
Leipzig, Germany
What did Wundt study in his lab in Germany?
Only those aspects of behaviour that could be strictly controlled under experimental conditions
What did Wundt’s studies in him German lab include?
- Study of reaction time
- Various aspects of sensation and perception
What did Wundt aim to study?
The structure of the human mind
What did Wundt believe was the best way to study the human mind?
To break down behaviours - such as sensation and perception into their basic elements
What was Wundt’s approach referred to?
Structuralism
What was Wundt’s technique he used called?
Introspection
What was Wundt’s original belief about investigating the human mind?
He believed all aspects could be investigated experimentally
What did Wundt realise could not be studied in a strict controlled manner?
Higher mental processes i.e;
- Learning
- Language
- Emotions
How did Wundt realise higher mental processes could be studied?
They could instead be described in terms of general trends in behaviour among groups of people
What was Volkerpsychologie?
The study of higher mental processes which can be described in terms of general trends in behaviour among groups of people
What does Introspection mean?
‘looking into’
What is the process of introspection?
By which a person gains knowledge about their own mental and emotional states
What does out introspective ability enable us to do?
To observe our inner world
What does our perceptual ability enable us to do?
To observe and make sense of the outer world
What did Wundt claim could happen with sufficient training?
Mental processes (i.e memory and perception) could be observed systematically as they occurred using introspection
What can the info from introspection be used for?
To gain insight into the nature of the mental processes involved in perception, reaction time etc
What would happen in Wundt’s studies of perception?
- Participants presented with carefully controlled stimuli
- Then asked to describe the inner processes they were experiencing as they looked at the stimuli
What did Wundt’s studies of perception allow?
Made it possible to compare different participants’ reports in response to the same stimuli
What could Wundt establish from his work on perception?
General theories about perception and other mental processes
What holds psychology together as a discipline?
Its reliance on a philosophic view known as empiricism
What do empiricists believe?
That knowledge comes from observation and experience alone
Who were the first people to apply empirical methods to the study of humans?
Wundt and his followers
What happened when empirical methods were first applied by Wundt and his followers?
Psychology began to emerge as a distinct entity
What were the two major assumptions psychology was based on when it first emerged?
- Determinism
- Predidctability
What was Determinism?
Behaviour is seen as being caused
What was Predictability?
If behaviour is determined, then it should be possible to predict how human beings would behave in different conditions
Ṭhe technique used to explore the assumptions (determinism and predictability) became known as what?
The scientific method
The scientific method refers to what?
The use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable
How is the scientific method objective?
That researchers do not let preconceived ideas or biases influence the collection of their data
How is the scientific method systematic?
Observations or experiments are carried out in an orderly way
How is the measurement and recording of data carried out (concerning the scientific method)?
Accurately and with consideration for the possible influence of other factors on the results obtained
How is the scientific method replicable?
The observations can be repeated by other researchers to determine whether the same results are obtained
What does it mean if results are not replicable?
They are not reliable and cannot be accepted as being universally true
Is the research process limited to empirical observation?
No - but it necessitates the use of reason to explain the results of the pbservations
What completes the scientific cycle?
The development and constant testing of scientific theories through further observation
Give 5 possible evaluations for the origins of psychology
- Wundt’s methods were unreliable
- Scientific approach tests assumptions about behaviour
- A scientific method is not always appropriate
- Introspection not particularly accurate
- Introspection still useful in scientific psychology
What is empiricism?
The belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience - it is generally characterised by the use of the scientific method in psychology
Who criticised Wundt’s methods and what was the issue?
Mainly behaviourists - his approach relied primarily on ‘nonobservable’ responses
Why did Wundt’s approach ultimately fail?
Due to the lack of reliability in his methods
How did Wundt’s methods lack reliability?
They weren’t really reproducible by other researchers in labs
What is behaviourist?
People who believe that human behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning - without the need ot consider thoughts or feelings
What is Classical conditioning?
When a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus and is able to produce a conditioned response
What is Operant conditioning?
Learning through reinforcement or punishment. If a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence then that behaviour is more likely to occur again in the future
What are the two types of conditioning?
- Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning
What is Punishment?
Involves the application of an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour, with the result that the behaviour is less likely to occur again
What is Reinforcement?
Anything that strengthens a response and increases the likelihood that is will occur again in the future
All animals are born with what according to the behaviourist approach?
A number of natural reflexes
Give an example of a natural reflex that occurs?
The act of salivation when food is placed in the mouth
What are the natural reflexes made up of?
A stimulus and its naturally associated response
When is an animal considered ‘classically conditioned’?
Other stimuli are consistently associated with this stimulus, and predict its arrival, they then too trigger the same response
Who discovered classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov
When did Pavlov discover classical conditioning?
1927
How did Pavlov discover classical conditioning?
He was investigating the salivary reflex in dogs - noticed dogs don’t only salivate when the food is in their mouth, also when they see the food etc
What is a behaviourist?
People who believe that human behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning, without the need to consider thoughts or feelings
What is classical conditioning?
When neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus & is able to produce a conditioned response
What is operant conditioning?
Learning through reinforcement or punishment
If a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence then that behaviour is more likely to occur again in the future
What is puishment?
Involves the application of an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour, with the result that the behavior is less likely to occur again in the future
What is reinforcement?
Anything that strengthens a response & increases the likelihood that it will occur again in the future
Explain how a dog can be conditioned to salivate when a bell rings.
Before conditioning:
Food (UCS) –> Dog salivating (UCR)
Bell ringing (neutral stimulus) –> No salivation
During conditioning:
Food paired with bell –> Dog salivates
(UCS paired with NS) (UCR)
After conditioning Bell rings (CS) --> Dog salivates (CR)
What are the 4 other important features in classical conditioning?
- Timing
- Extinction
- Spontaneous recovery
- Stimulus generalisation
How does timing affect classical conditioning?
If the NS cannot be used to predict the USC (i.e. if it occurs after the UCS) then conditioning doesn’t take place
How does extinction affect classical conditioning?
Pavlov discovered that unlike the UCR, the CR does not become permanently established as a response
After a few presentations of the CS in the absence of the UCS, it loses its ability to produce the CR
How does spontaneous recovery affect classical conditioning?
Following extinction, if the CS and UCS are then paired together once again, the link between them is made much more quickly
How does stimulus generalisation affect classical conditioning?
Pavlov discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS
Whose theory was operant conditioning?
Skinner
When did Skinner create his theory of operant conditioning?
1938
What was ‘Skinner’s box’?
Skinner developed a special cage in order to investigate operant conditioning in rats
How does a ‘Skinner’s box’ work?
The rat moves around the cage, and when it accidentally presses the lever, a food pellet (the reinforcer) falls into the cage. In no time at all the hungry rat begins pressing the lever the lever in order to obtain food
If the food pellets stop, the rat presses a few more times and then abandon it (extinction)
What are the two main types of reinforcement?
- Negative
- Positive
What is positive reinforcement?
It occurs when behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying or pleasent for the organism
Give an example of positive reinforcement
Food to a hungry animal or praise given to a child after they do something particularly well are both effective positive reinforcers
What is negative reinforcement?
They work because they remove something unpleasant & so restorethe organism to its ‘pre-adversive’ state
Give an example of negative reinforcement
The act of hitting the ‘off’ button on an alarm clock allows a person to escape from the unpleasant ringing & restores the restful pre-alarm state
What is identification?
A form of influence where an individual adopts an attitude/behaviour because they want to be associated with a person/group
What is imitation?
The action of using someone/something asa model& copying their behaviour
What are mediational processes?
Internal mental processes that exist between environmental stimuli & the response made by an individual to those stimuli
What is modelling?
A form of learning where individauls learn a particular behaviour by observing another individual performing that behaviour
What is the social learning theory?
Learning through observing others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Learning that is not a result of direct reinforcement of behaviour - through observing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour
What does cognitive mean?
A mental process such as perception, memory & reasoning
What is cognitive neuroscience?
An area of psychology dedicated to the underlying neural bases of cognitive functions
What is a computer model?
The process of using computer analogies as a representation of human cognition
What is inference/inferring?
Reaching a logical conclusion on the basis of evidence and reasoning
What is a schema?
A cognitive framework that helps to organise & interpret info in the brain
Schemas help an individual to make sense of new info
What are theoretical models?
In cognitive psychology, models are simplified, usually pictorial, representations of a particular mental process based on current research evidence
What is the biological appraoch?
Views humans as biological organisms and so provides biological explanations for all aspcets of psychological functioning
What is evolution?
Refers to the change over sucessive generations of the genetic makeup of a particular population
Central proposition of an evolutionary persepctive is that the genotype of a population is changable rather than fixed & change is likely to be caused by the process of natural selection
What is a gene?
A part of the chromosome of an organism that carries info in the form of DNA
What is a genotype?
The genetic make-up of an individual
The genotype is a collection of inherited genetic material that is passed from generation to generation
What is natural selection?
The process by which inherited characteristics that enhance an individual’s reproductive sucess are passed on to the next generation - so become more widespread in the population over time
What is neurochemistry?
The study of chemical and neural processes associated with the nervous sytem
What is a phenotype?
The observable charateristics pf an individual
This is a concequence of the interaction of the genotype with the environment
What are conditions of worth?
Conditions imposed on an individual’s behaviour & development that are considered necessary to earn positive regard from significant others
What is congruence?
If there is similarity between a person’s ideal self and self-image, a state of congruence exists
A difference represents a stae of incongruence
What is free will?
The ability to act at one’s own discretion i.e. to choose how to behavewithout being influenced by external forces
What is hierarchy of needs?
The motivational theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, often displayed as a pyramid
The most basic needs are at the bottom & higher needs at the top
What is the humanistic approach?
Refers to the belief that human beings are born with the desire to grow, create and to love & have the power to direct their own lives
What is self?
Our personal identity, used synonymously with terms ‘self-image’ & ‘self-concept’
What is self-actualisation?
A term used in different ways
Rogers used it as the drive to realise one’s true potential
Maslow used it to describe the final stage of his hierarchy of needs
