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Psychology AS > 2. Memory > Flashcards

2. Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is coding?

A

The form that info is stored in

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2
Q

What is duration?

A

The length of time info can be held in mem

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3
Q

What is capacity?

A

How much info that can can be held in a mem store

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4
Q

What is short term memory?

A

Items you’re using now

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5
Q

What is long term memory?

A

Stored items you can access again

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6
Q

What is retrieval?

A

Acessing info from LTM

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7
Q

What is attention?

A

Mental focus on an an object

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8
Q

What is the multi-store model?

A

An explanation of memory based on 3 seperate memory stores & how info is transferred between these stores

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9
Q

What is the sensory register?

A
  • Info at the senses –> collected by eyes, nose, ears etc
  • Info retained for brief period of time
  • Capacity of sensory mem is very large
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10
Q

What is the Central Executive?

A

Monitors & coordinates all other functions in working memory (wm)

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11
Q

What is the episodic buffer?

A

Receives input from many sources, temporarily stores this info & then integrates it in order to construct a mental episode of what is happening

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12
Q

What is the phonological loop?

A

Codes speech sounds in working mem, typically involves maintenance rehersal

This is why this component of working mem is reffered to as ‘loop’

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13
Q

What is the visup-spatial sketchpad?

A

Codes visual info in terms of seperate objects as well as the arrangement of these objects in one’s visual field

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14
Q

What is the working memory model?

A

An explanation of the mem used when working on a task

Each store is qualitatively different

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15
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

Personal memories of events, such as what you did yesterday or a teacher you like

This kind of mem includes contextual detatils plus emotional tone

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16
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

Mem for how to do things, for example riding a bicycle or learning how to read

Such memories are automatic as the result of repeated practice

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17
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

Shared mems for facts & knowledge

These memories may be concrete, such as knowing that ice is made of water, or abstract, such as mathematical knowledge

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18
Q

What is interference?

A

An explanation for forgetting in terms of one memory distrupting the ability to recall another

This is most likely to occur when the two memories have some similarity

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19
Q

What is proactive interference (PI)?

A

Past learning interferes with current attempts to learn something

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20
Q

What is retroactive interference (RI)?

A

Current attempts to learn something interfere with past learning

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21
Q

What are cues?

A

Things that serve as a reminder

May meaningfully link to material to be remembered or may not be meaningfully linked, such as environmental cues (a room) or your mental state (being sad/drunk)

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22
Q

What is retreival failure?

A

Occurs due to the absence of cues

Explanation for forgetting based on the idea that hte issues relates to being able to retrieve a memory that is there but not accesible

Retrieval depends on using cues

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23
Q

What is eyewitness testimony?

A

The evidence provided in court by a person who witnessed a crime, with a view to identify the perpatrator of the crime

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24
Q

What is a leading question?

A

A question that, either by its form or context, suggests to the witness what answer is desired/leads him or her to the desired answer

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25
Q

What is misleading information?

A

Supplying info that may lead a witness’ memory for a crime to be altered

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26
Q

What is post-event discussion?

A

Conversation between co-witnesses/an interviewer & an eyewitness after a crime has taken place which may contaminate a witness’ memory for the event

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27
Q

What is anxiety?

A

An unpleasent emotional state that is often accompanied by increased HR & rapid breathing

i.e. physiological arousal

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28
Q

What is a cognitive interview?

A

Police technique for interviewing witnesses to a crime, which encourages them to recreate the original context of the crime in order to increase the accesibility of stored info

Our mem is made up of a network of associations rather than of discrete events, memories are accessed using multiple retrieval strategies

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29
Q

What sort of info is stored in the STM?

A

Info that we process & recall straight away is usually stored in our STM

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30
Q

When we experience sensory info, what happens to it?

A

It stays there just long enough to decide if we should process it further

If we rehearse it, will go to STM - if not it is forgotten

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31
Q

What is the sensory input/memory like?

A

It takes in info from sense & transforms them into a memory trace - for example they may have been acoustically coded

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32
Q

What is rehersal?

A

Attending to info so it stays in your mem

e.g. verbally repeating it over and over again

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33
Q

What does the STM contain?

A

Small amounts of info which we’re currently aware of

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34
Q

How is STM coded?

A

Acoustically

e.g. sound

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35
Q

How is info kept in the STM?

A

Using rehersal

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36
Q

What is LTM?

A

The permanent mem store

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37
Q

Where does info go after the STM?

A

It goes to the LTM to be stored more permanently

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38
Q

How is LTM coded?

A

Semantically

e.g. words mean similar things

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39
Q

What is the capacity of the LTM?

A

It is potentially unlimited - it can hold info until we wan to retrieve it

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40
Q

What is retrieval?

A

Process of locating & recalling stored memories

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41
Q

What is the capacity of the STM?

A

Limited - between 5-9 items

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42
Q

What is the duration of the STM?

A

Betweem 18-30 seconds

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43
Q

What is the duration of the LTM?

A

A potential lifetime

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44
Q

What did Miller’s study (1956) on memory show about STM?

A

He conducted experiments & argued that most things come in 7s

He concluded that on avg. we can recall 7 items (7 + or - 2) with a range of between 5-9 items

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45
Q

What memory store was Miller’s 1956 study concerning and what was it testing?

A

STM - the capacity of it

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46
Q

Is the capcity of the STM memory limited to just 5-9 letters?

A

No - Miller discovered we can remember 5 words as easily as we can remember 5 letters

Using chunking

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47
Q

What is one way to test the capacity of STM?

A

The digit span test

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48
Q

Who developed the digit span test?

A

Jacobs 1887

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49
Q

What does the digit span test, test?

A

Researcher gives a numebr of digits & ppt has to recall all in order

Researcher then increases the amount by 1 digit & ppt has to recall again until they cannot recall in correct order

This detemines their digit span

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50
Q

What was the mean digit span in Jacobs study for letters and numbers?

A

Mean digit span = 9.3 items

Letters = 7.3

This suggests the STM is better at sting digits than letters

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51
Q

What study did Bahrick et al. conduct?

A

The yearbook study - testing LTM duration

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52
Q

What was the process of Bahrick et al.’s LTM study?

A

(Testing LTM)
Tested 400 people of various ages (17-74) on thie memory of classmates

Photo-recognition test consisted of 50 photos, some from ppt’s yearbook

Free-recall test - ppts asked to list names of those in their graduating class

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53
Q

When was Bahrick et al.’s study?

A

1975

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54
Q

What were the findings of Bahrick et al.’s study?

A

Ppts tested within 15 years of graduation were about 90% accurate

After 48 years down to about 70%

Free recall was about 60% after 15 years & 30% after 48 years

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55
Q

When was Peterson & Peterson’s study?

A

1959

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56
Q

What was Peterson & Peterson’s study testing?

A

STM duration

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57
Q

What was the process of Peterson & Peterson’s study?

A

24 students - each ppt tested over 8 trials

Each trial ppt given consonant syllable & 3 digit no. (e.g. THX 512)

Asked to recall the consonant syllable after retention interval of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 seconds

During retention interval they had to countcount backwards from their three-digit no.

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58
Q

What were the findings of Peterson & Peterson’s (1959) study?

A

Ppts on avg, were 90% correct over 3 seconds, 30% correct after 9 seconds & 2% correct after 18

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59
Q

What did the findings of Peterson & Peterson’s (1959) study suggest about the duration of the STM?

A

That STM has a very short duration - less than 18 seconds - as long as verbal rehersal is prevented

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60
Q

When was Baddely’s coding of memory study?

A

1966

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61
Q

What was the process of Baddely’s coding of memory study?

A

He used words lists thay were acoustically/semantically similar to test the effects of acoustic & semantic similarity on the STM & LTM

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62
Q

What did Baddely’s 1966 find in his coding of memory study?

A

He found ppts had difficulty remembering acoustically similar words in STM but not LTM

Semantically similar words posed little problem for STMs but led to muddled LTMs

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63
Q

What did the findings of Baddely’s 1966 coding of memory study suggest?

A

That STM is largely encoded acoustically whereas LTM is largely encoded semantically

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64
Q

What are the evaluations for capacity of STM/LTM memory?

A
  • Capacity of STM may be more limited than the magic number (7+-2)
  • Size of the chunck matters
  • Individual differences
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65
Q

What are the evaluations for duration of STM/LTM memory?

A
  • Testing STM was artificial

- STM results may be due to displacement

66
Q

What are the evaluations for coding of STM/LTM memory?

A
  • STM may not be exclusively acoustic
  • LTM may not be exclusively semantic
  • Baddely may not have tested LTM
67
Q

Who designed the multi store model of memory?

A

Atkinson & Shiffrin - 1968

68
Q

What are the elements of the Multi Store Memory model?

A

Sensory mem –>

STM –>

LTM

69
Q

Draw the Multi Store Memory model

A

Check against the textbook :)

70
Q

Who was sensory memory designed by?

A

Spelling - 1960

71
Q

What did Sperling do to test sensory memory?

A

He conducted an experiment- ppts saw a grid of digits for 50 milliseconds.

They were either asked to write down all 12 items, or that they would hear a tone immediately after & they would have to recall a particular row

72
Q

What were the results of Sperling’s (1960) study on the sensory store?

A

Grid test:

Whole grid = 5 items recalled about 42%

One row = 3 items recalled about 75%

73
Q

What did the results from Sperling’s (1960) study show?

A

Ppts should have been able to remember 4 items from a row - approx. only 3 were remembered

Suggests sensory mem cannot hold info for long

74
Q

What did Sperling’s (1960) study conclude about sensory memory?

A
  • Info decays rapidly in the sensory store

- This supports the existence of a sensory store

75
Q

What was the study conducted by Glanzer & Cunitz (1966)?

A

It looked at the serial position effect

Showed ppts a list of 20 words, presented one at a time & asked to recall them

76
Q

What is the serial position effect?

A

When asking people to remember a list of words that is greater than capacity of STM they tend to remember the words from the begginign & end of the list

77
Q

What are the 3 effects theorised in Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) study?

A
  • Serial position effect
  • Primacy effect
  • Recency effect
78
Q

What is the primacy effect?

A

The tendency for people to remember the first 5 or so words from the beginning of the list

79
Q

What is the recency effect?

A

The tendency for people to remember remember the last 5 or so words from the end of a list

80
Q

How does Glanzer & Cunitz’s (1966) study support the MSM?

A

Primacy effect - proves LTM existence

Recency effect - proves STM existence

81
Q

How does the Primacy effect prove the existence of the LTM?

A

It occurs as the first words in the list are best rehearsed & transferred to LTM

82
Q

How does the Recency effect prove the existence of the STM?

A

It occurs as the last words in the list are the last to be presented

They are therefore fresh in the STM at the start of recall

83
Q

What was the case of HM?

A

HM was a normal child, however when he was a young teenager he was hit by a car while riding his bike

He saw no effects until his 16th bday where he had his first epileptic fit

A doctor attempted to cure this by sucking out his hippocampus - did cure his epilepsy but him unable to form new LTMs

84
Q

How does HM’s brian damage support the MSM?

A

HM is still alive but has marked problems in STM after brain surgery

He has remembered little of personal (deaths) or public events (Vietnam war) that have occured in the last 45 yrs

However his LTM is still intact

85
Q

What are the two opposing views on anxiety affecting eyewitness testimony?

A

Christianson & Hubinette (1993) - Anxiety helps make strong memories

Johnson & Scott (1976) - Anxiety makes memory formation worse

86
Q

Define Cognition

A

Capacity to process info

87
Q

Which researchers thought that anxiety could improve memory?

A

Christianson & Hubinette (1993)

88
Q

What was the aim of Christianson & Hubinette’s (1993) anxiety affecting EWT study?

A

To investigate effects of anxiety on eyewitness recall, with 58 real bank robbery witnesses, 4-15 months after incident

89
Q

What were the IV and DV of Christianson & Hubinette’s (1993) anxiety affecting EWT study?

A
  • IV(1) = Victimg of crime (bank teller)
  • IV(2) = Bystander (customer)
  • DV = Detail match to CCTV of crime
90
Q

What were the findings of Christianson & Hubinette’s (1993) anxiety affecting EWT study?

A

All vicitims had above 75% avg. accuracy

Victims reporting more anxiety had better recall (+ive correlation)

91
Q

What was the conclusion of Christianson & Hubinette’s (1993) anxiety affecting EWT study?

A

Semantic/Episodic mem formation is better when anxious

92
Q

Which researchers thought that anxiety could make memory worse?

A

Johnson and Scott

93
Q

What was the aim of Johnson and Scott’s (1976) anxiety affecting EWT study?

A

Investigate the effect of anxiety on eyewitness recall

94
Q

What were the IV and DV of Johnson and Scott’s (1976) anxiety affecting EWT study?

A
  • IV(1) = Witness argument, see confederate holding greasy pen
  • IV(2) = Witness arguemnt, see confederate holding bloody knife
  • DV = ID of criminal accuracy %
95
Q

What were the findings of Johnson and Scott’s (1976) anxiety affecting EWT study?

A

EWT accuracy:

  • Pen - 49%
  • Knife - 33%
96
Q

What was the conclusion of Johnson and Scott’s (1976) anxiety affecting EWT study?

A

The weapon focus affect causes memory to be worse

97
Q

How does the weapon focus effect work?

A

Using the Yerkes-Dodson Curve (similar to inverted U in PE)

Anxiety helps memory until a certain point, after this point, memory gets worse

98
Q

Who suggested that the Yerkes-Dodson Curve could explain anxiety affecting EWT?

A

Kenneth Deffenbacher

In 1983 he reviewed the studies - decided the curve could account for the inconsistency in the opinions

99
Q

What was the procedure of Johnson & Scott’s (1976) study?

A

Asked ppts to sit in a waiting room where they heard an argument in an adjoining room

They then saw a man carrying either a pen covered in grease or a knife covered in blood

ppts later asked to identify the man from a set of photos

100
Q

What was the high/low anxiety condition in Johnson & Scott’s (1976) study?

A

High anxiety = knife covered in blood

Low anxiety = pen covered in grease

101
Q

Who came up with the Working Memory Model?

A

Baddely & Hitch (1974)

102
Q

Why did Baddely & Hitch come up with the WMM?

A

Believed me is not just one sotre but a no. different stores

2 visual tasks = poorer performance but 1 visual & 1 verbal means no interruption

103
Q

Which store does the WMM focus on?

A

STM only & believed it wan not a single store like MSM

LTM more passive - holds previously learned material for use by the STM when needed

104
Q

What are the four stores in the WMM?

A
  • Central executive
  • Episodic buffer
  • Visuo-spatial sketchpad
  • Phonological loop
105
Q

Where does the WMM fit in memory?

A

It is the STM, between the sensory mem and LTM

106
Q

What is the capacity of the Central Executive?

A

Limited capacity - data arrives from the senses but it can’t hold it for long

107
Q

What is the Central Executive like?

A
  • Determines how resources from slave systems are allocated

- Involves reasoning & decision making tasks

108
Q

How did Baddely (1986) describe the Central Executive?

A

Uses the metaphor of a company oss to describe the way in which the CE operates

Company boss makes decisions about whihc issues deserve attention& which are ignored

109
Q

What is the capacity of the phonological loop?

A

Limited capacity

110
Q

What is the phonological loop like?

A

Deals with auditory info & preserves word order - inner ear

111
Q

What did Baddely (1986) divide the Phonological loop into?

A
  • Phonological store = holds words hears
  • Articulatory process = holds words hear/seen & silently repeated (looped) like an inner voice - kind of maintenance rehersal
112
Q

What is the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

A

Limited capacity: 3-4 objects

113
Q

What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad like?

A

Visual and/or spatial info stored here - inner eye

114
Q

What did Logle (1995) suggest that the visuo-spatial sketchpad could be divided into?

A
  • Visuo-cache (store)

- Inner scribe for spatial relations

115
Q

When was the episodic buffer added and why?

A

Baddely (2000) added episodic buffer as he realised model needed a more general store

116
Q

What is the role of the episodic buffer?

A
  • Slave systems deal w specific types of info
  • CE has no storage capacity - EB had limited capacity of 4 chunks
  • Integrates info from all other areas
117
Q

How is the phonological loop coded?

A

Acoustically

118
Q

How is the visuo-spatial sketchpad coded?

A

Visually

119
Q

How is the episodic buffer coded?

A

Modality free (like CE)

120
Q

How is the central executive coded?

A

Modality free

121
Q

What is modality free coding?

A

How CE and EB are coded

Not limited to sight or sound or any one sense since it reads to manipulate all manner of info

122
Q

What is the evidence for the WMM?

A

Dual task perdormance - Baddely & Hitch (1976)

Aimed to show STM should be divided into several components

123
Q

What were the IV and DV for dual task performance study (Baddely & Hitch 1976)?

A

IV(1) - CE occupied by repeating a word

IV(2) - CE and AL occupied by repeating random no. sequence

DV - True/false task accuracy (seconds + errors)

124
Q

What were the findings in the dual task performance study (Baddely & Hitch 1976)?

A

Reduced accuracy when 2 WM areas are used together

125
Q

What was the conclusion of the dual task performance study (Baddely & Hitch 1976)?

A

Existence of CE & AL is supported & they are functionally different

126
Q

What is the duration of the phonological loop?

A

It holds the amound of info you can say in 1.5-2 seconds (Baddely et al., 1975)

127
Q

What is the word length effect?

A

The phonological loop finds it harder to remember words that are longer than 1.5-2 seconds long

Makes it harder to remember a list of long words such as ‘association’ compared to shorter words like ‘harm’

128
Q

When does word length effect dissapear?

A

If a person is gicen an articulatory surpression task (saying ‘the, the, the’ while reading the words)

129
Q

What does the word length effect prove about the WMM?

A

Supports the existence of Phonological Loop and Articulatory Loop

130
Q

Why does the word length effect disappear when you’re given an articulatory supression task?

A

(repeating ‘the, the, the’ task)

The repetitive task ties up your articulatory process & means you can’t rehearse the shorter words more quickly than the longer ones, so the word length effect disappears

131
Q

What are the two theories of forgetting

A
  • Retrieval failure

- Interference theory

132
Q

Who conducted the study into retrieval failure?

A

Tulving et al., 1973

133
Q

Why do we forget, according to Retrieval Failure?

A

The reason we forget is due to insufficient cues

134
Q

What is are schematic memories?

A

All memories are ecoded with info from the environment

they’re like “webs” in the brain/mind - they’re all interconnected so its impossible to use one part of a memory without “pulling” on the others

135
Q

How do cues help retreival of memories?

A
  • Schematic items associated w target mems act as cues
  • Cues help us to remember by helping to retrieve the schema
  • Fewer cues = more likely we’ll fail to retrieve memories
136
Q

What is the Encoding Specificity Principle?

A

The greater the similarity between the encoding event and the retrieval event, the greater the likelihood of recalling the original mem

137
Q

How can cues be linked to the item to help us recall it better?

A

Some cues are linked to material in a meaningful way

A meaningful link or connection to help you remember it

138
Q

Give an example of how a cue can be linked in a meaningful way to aid recall

A

Mnemonics - tools to help remember facts or large amounts of info

Can be a song, rhyme, acronym, image or a phrase

139
Q

What are the two types of cues?

A
  • Context cues (known as ‘context depended forgetting’)

- State cues (known as ‘state depended forgetting’)

140
Q

What is a context cue?

A

They’re external environmental cues (e.g. a place)

141
Q

What are state cues?

A

Internal cues (e.g. being drunk or tired)

142
Q

Which type of forgetting did Godden & Baddely (1975) conduct their study on?

A

Context-dependet forgetting

143
Q

What was the AIM of Godden & Baddely’s (1975) study on context-dependet forgetting?

A

To investigate whether context affects memory

144
Q

What was the procedure of Godden & Baddely’s (1975) study on context-dependet forgetting?

A
  • Scuba divers give a list of words
  • IV(1) = On land
  • IV(2) = Underwater
  • DV(1) = No. words correctly recalled on land
  • DV(2) = No. words correctly recalled under water
145
Q

What were the findings of Godden & Baddely’s (1975) study on context-dependet forgetting?

A

Recall was significantly better in original context

e.g. if they wre first learned on land & recalled on land

146
Q

What was the conclusion of Godden & Baddely’s (1975) study on context-dependet forgetting?

A

Forgetting is context-dependent

147
Q

Which type of forgetting did Goodwin et al. (1969) conduct their study on?

A

State-dependent forgetting

148
Q

What was the aim of Goodwin et al.’s (1969) study on state-dependet forgetting?

A

To discover if mental/physical state affects mem

149
Q

What was the procedure of Goodwin et al.’s (1969) study on state-dependet forgetting?

A
  • Male volunteers given a list of words
  • IV(1) = At 3x legal drink/drive limit
  • IV(2) = Sober
  • DV = No. words correctly recalled after 24 hours (all ppts randomly assigned drunk/sober)
150
Q

What was the design of Goodwin et al.’s (1969) study on state-dependet forgetting?

A

Independent groups design was used - not matched pairs

151
Q

What were the findings of Goodwin et al.’s (1969) study on state-dependet forgetting?

A

Recall was significantly better in original state (even if that state is drunk!)

152
Q

What was the conclusion of Goodwin et al.’s (1969) study on state-dependet forgetting?

A

Forgetting is state-dependent

153
Q

What is availability in terms of memory?

A

Memories are gone

154
Q

What is accessibility in terms of memory?

A

You cannot reach the memory

155
Q

What is interference?

A

One mem disturbsthe ability to recall another

This could result in forgetting or distorting a mem or both

More likely to happenif the mems are similar

156
Q

What are the two types of interference?

A
  • Proactive interference

- Retroactive interference

157
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

Previously learnt info interferes with the new info you’re trying to learn

158
Q

Give an example of proactive interference

A

You have difficulties learning the names of the students in your psychology class, instead you keep remembering the names of the students in your maths class last year

159
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

A new mem interferes with an old one

160
Q

Give an example of retroactive interference?

A

You have trouble remembering the names of the students in your maths group last year because you learnt the names of your psychology class this year

161
Q

What was the study that McGeoch & Mcdonald (1931) about?

A

Looked at the similarity of materials and how this affected mem

(part of interference as an explantion for forgetting)

Psychology AS (9 decks)

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