Sociology-RM-Interviews

Question 1

What are the different types of interview?

Answer 1

Structured/formal interviews, unstructured/informal interviews, semi-structured interviews, and group interviews

Question 2

What are structured or formal interviews?

Answer 2

Very similar to a questionnaire: interviewer is given strict instructions on how to ask the questions. The interview is conducted in same standardised way each time, asking each interviewee precisely the same questions, word for word, in the same order, tone of voice etc

Question 3

What are unstructured or informal interviews?

Answer 3

Also called discovery interviews, and are like a guided conversation. Interviewer has complete freedom to vary the questions, their wording, order etc from one interview to the next, pursuing whatever line of questioning seems appropriate at the next time, asking follow-up questions or probing more deeply

Question 4

What are semi-structured interviews?

Answer 4

Lie in between the two extremes. Each interview has the same set of questions in common, but the interviewer can also probe for more information. Eg, Cicourel and Kitsue always followed up their questions with ‘How do you mean?’ as a way of gaining more information. Additional questions can be asked where the interviewer thinks it relevant

Question 5

What are group interviews?

Answer 5

Most interviews are one-to-one but some are group interviews, with up to a dozen or so people being interviewed together. Willis used group interviews as part of his research into the ‘lads and schooling’

Question 6

What are focus groups?

Answer 6

A form of group interview in which the researcher asks the group to discuss certain topics (such as how pupils feel about the school) and records their views

Question 7

What are the strengths of group interviews?

Answer 7

Participants may feel more comfortable so may be more likely to open up, participants may throw ideas around group stimulating each other’s thinking and producing richer, more reflective data. Can be a useful way of generating initial ideas that can be followed up in later research. Researcher can combine questioning with the opportunity to observe group dynamics and norms

Question 8

What are the limitations of group interviews?

Answer 8

One or two individuals may dominate the discussion and inhibit others from contributing. Much depends on researcher’s ability to keep the group focused on the discussion topic. Peer group pressure to conform to group norms may lead to participants not saying what they really think. Data generated from group interaction is more complex and difficult to analyse

Question 9

What are the practical issues of structured interviews?

Answer 9

Training interviewers is quite straightforward/inexpensive as all they really need to do is follow a set of instructions, though this is more costly than posting/emailing people questionnaires. Surveys that use these interviews can cover quite large amounts of people with limited resources as they are quick and cheap, however they still cannot match the potentially huge numbers reached by postal questionnaires. They are suitable for gathering straightforward factual information. Results are easily quantified as they use closed-ended questions with coded answers, making them suitable for hypothesis testing

Question 10

What is the response rate like for structured interviews?

Answer 10

Large numbers who can be surveyed using structured interviews increases chance of obtaining representative sample. Although numbers are lower than for questionnaires, they have a higher response rate. Eg only 54 out of 987 refused to be interviewed for a study by Young and Willmott-may be harder to turn down face-to-face request, and some may welcome the opportunity to talk

Question 11

How can response rates for structured interviews be increased?

Answer 11

Can be increased if the interviewer can make several call backs to pursue those who fail to respond initially. However, this increases the cost of the survey. High response rates help to produce a more representative result and therefore a better basis for making generalisations. On the other hand, as with questionnaires, those with the time or willingness to be interviewed may be untypical so will produce unrepresentative data and undermine validity of any generalisations made from the findings

Question 12

Are structured interviews reliable?

Answer 12

Seen as reliable because it is easy for the researcher to standardise and control them. They can ensure each interview is conduced in precisely the same way, with the same questions, in the same order, with the same wording and tone of voice. This way researchers should get very similar results, and if not it can be assumed that it reflects real differences. Also we can compare answers easily

Question 13

Are structured interviews valid?

Answer 13

Critics argue that, like questionnaires, they often produce a false picture because they are usually closed-ended questions (restrictive) and give very little freedom to explain or clarify, plus people may lie or exaggerate. Also the interview is a social interaction so there is always a risk the interaction between interviewer and interviewee will influence answers given, eg gender and ethnic differences can affect the answers as can the interviewee’s desire to be seen in a favourable light

Question 14

What is the problem of inflexibility with structured interviews?

Answer 14

Inflexibility comes from having to draw up the questions in advance. In doing so, the researcher has already decided what is important, yet this may not coincide with what the interviewee thinks is important. As a result, findings may lack validity as they do not reflect interviewee’s concerns and priorities. In sticking to them rigidly it makes it impossible to pursue any interesting leads that emerge in course of interviews, so valuable insights are lost. Aslo they are only snapshots of one moment in time that they to reflect the dynamic nature of social life, unlike participant observation for example

Question 15

What are the feminist criticisms of structured interviews?

Answer 15

Graham argues survey methods are patriarchal and give a distorted, invalid picture of women’s experiences. She argues the researcher, not the female interviewee is in control of the interview-mirroring women’s subordination in wider society. Also survey methods treat women as isolated individuals rather than seeing them in the context of the power relationships that oppress them. Surveys also impose the researcher’s categories on women, making it difficult for them to express their experiences of oppression, thus concealing the unequal power relationships between the sexes

Question 16

What are the feminist criticisms of survey methods similar to?

Answer 16

Similar to those put forward by interpretivist sociologists, who argue that structured interviews fail to reveal how the interviewee sees their situation. Graham argues sociologists need to use methods that allow the researcher to understand women’s behaviour, attitudes and meanings. She therefore advocates for the use of direct observation instead of structured interviews

Question 17

What research methods do other feminists favour?

Answer 17

Unstructured interviews, which enable the researcher to build a more equal and collaborative relationship based on trust

Question 18

What are the advantages of unstructured interviews?

Answer 18

Rapport and sensitivity, the interviewee’s view, checking understanding, flexibility, and exploring unfamiliar topics

Question 19

How is rapport and sensitivity an advantage of unstructured interviews?

Answer 19

Informality allows rapport to develop. This is more likely to put the interviewee at ease and encourage them to open up than a formal structured interview. A good example is Labov’s formal interview technique used to study the language of black American children where adopting a more relaxed, informal style allowed a different response from children who opened up and spoke freely, unlike previously when they seemed ‘linguistically deprived’

Question 20

What types of topics are unstructured interviews particularly useful for?

Answer 20

When researching sensitive topics. Eg Dobash and Dobash used them to study domestic violence. The empathy and encouragement of the interviewer will help the interviewee to feel comfortable discussing difficult or personal subjects such as abuse

Question 21

How is the interviewee’s view an advantage of unstructured interviews?

Answer 21

No set questions, so they allow the interviewee more opportunity to speak about things they feel are important, which contrasts with structured interviews where questions are pre-determined. Unstructured interviews are more likely to produce fresh insights and valid data. Similarly, the interviewer’s probing can help formulate and develop interviewees’ thoughts more clearly

Question 22

How does Dean and Taylor-Gooby’s study demonstrate the advantage of the interviewee’s view?

Answer 22

Used unstructured tape-recorded interviews, lasting up to 90 minutes with 85 claimants. Their unstructured approach gave interviewees the freedom to talk in their own terms about the issues that concern them

Question 23

How is ‘checking understanding’ an advantage of unstructured interviews?

Answer 23

Structured interviews have a danger the interviewee may misunderstand the question, or the interviewer may misunderstand the answer. Unstructured interviews however make it easier for interviewer and interviewee to check each other’s meanings. If the interviewee doesn’t understand a question, it can be explained, and if the interviewer is unsure of what the interviewee’s answer means, follow up questions can be put to clarify matters

Question 24

How is flexibility an advantage of unstructured interviews?

Answer 24

Highly flexible. Interviewer is not restricted to a fixed set of questions in advance, but can explore whatever seems interesting or relevant. Researcher can formulate new ideas and hypotheses and then put them to the test as they arise during the course of the interview. There is no need to go away and draw up a new interview, schedule, as there would be if using structured interviews

Question 25

How is ‘exploring unfamiliar topics’ an advantage of unstructured interviews?

Answer 25

Useful when we know little about the topic prior to the interview as they are open-ended and exploratory. As with an ordinary conversation, we can start out knowing nothing, but by asking questions, learn as we go along. Sometimes unstructured interviews are used as a starting point to develop their initial ideas about a topic before going on to use more structured methods of investigation

Question 26

What are the disadvantages of unstructured interviews?

Answer 26

Practical problems, representativeness, reliability, quantification, and validity

Question 27

What are the practical problems with unstructured interviews?

Answer 27

Time and sample size (take a long time to conduct, limiting the number that can be carried out so there is usually a relatively small sample), training (more thorough training needed, and interviewer needs a background in sociology to recognise sociologically important answers and probe further with appropriate line of questioning, though this adds costs), and interpersonal skills (Need good interpersonal skills so they can establish rapport that is essential if interviewees are to answer fully and honestly )

Question 28

How is representativeness a disadvantage of unstructured interviews?

Answer 28

Smaller numbers involved means it is more likely the sample interviewed will not be representative, meaning it will be harder to make valid generalisations based on the research findings

Question 29

How is reliability a disadvantage of unstructured interviews?

Answer 29

Not reliable because they are not standardised. Each interview is unique: interviewers are free to ask different questions they feel are relevant, making it virtually impossible for another interviewer to replicate the interviews and check the findings or compare them with their own

Question 30

How is quantification a disadvantage of unstructured interviews?

Answer 30

Because they are mainly open-ended questions, the answers cannot be pre-coded. This makes it very difficult to count up and quantify numbers of interviewees giving this or that answer. The lack of quantitative data makes unstructured interviews less useful for establishing cause-and-effect relationships and hypothesis testing that positivists prefer

Question 31

How is validity a disadvantage of unstructured interviews?

Answer 31

Generally seen as producing valid data, but critics argue the fact they involve interaction between interviewer and interviewee inevitably colours and distorts information obtained

Question 32

All interviews are an interaction, how can this threaten the validity of interviews?

Answer 32

Interviewer bias, artificiality, status and power inequalities, cultural differences, the social desirability effect, and ethical issues

Question 33

What is interviewer bias?

Answer 33

Interviewer may ask leading questions, where the wording tells the interviewee how to answer. Less of a danger in structured interviews as the schedule restricts interviewer to a particular set of questions with fixed wording. Interviewers can consciously or unconsciously influence answers by their facial expression, body language or tone of voice. Another source of interviewer bias is where interviewer identifies too closely with interviewees. Eg Oakley admits that, as a mother herself, she found it difficult to remain detached and neutral when interviewing other women about maternity and childbirth

Question 34

What is artificilaity?

Answer 34

Even the most relaxed unstructured interviews are still interviews and not a normal conversation: both parties know it is an interview, in which one ‘side’ takes the initiative and asks questions. Under these artificial conditions, it is sometimes doubtful whether truthful answers can be obtained

Question 35

What are status and power inequalities in interviews?

Answer 35

Inequalities between interviewer and interviewee may affect interviewee’s honesty or willingness to answer. In general, the bigger the status difference, the less valid the data. Eg Rich shows that when adults interview children, the child’s need to please the interviewer will affect their answers. Similarly, gender differences in power can shape the interview, while ethnic inequalities between interviewer and interviewee may make interviewing very difficult. This led Griffin to abandon interviewing in favour of the use of participant observation. Though this ay affect structured interviews less as there are other controls over the nature of the interaction such as pre-set questions-the interviewer doesn’t have all the power

Question 36

What are cultural differences, and how do these affect interviews as an interaction?

Answer 36

May undermine validity. Eg there may be misunderstandings as a result of different meanings being given to the same words. The cultural gap may also mean interviewers cannot tell when they are being lied to, eg Mead’s research on adolescents in Samoa in the western Pacific has been criticised on the grounds that Mead, who couldn’t speak the language, was unable to spot that the girls she interviewed had deliberately misled her

Question 37

What is the social desirability effect?

Answer 37

In social interaction, people often seek to win approval. This may be even truer in an interview, where interviewees may be on their best behaviour and give answers that present them in a favourable light. They may also not wish to appear ignorant or uninteresting and so, instead of saying they don’t know or don’t understand the question, they offer any answer at all rather than none

Question 38

What are ethical issues with interviews?

Answer 38

Relatively few ethical problems with interviews, however, as it is a social interaction, the interviewee may feel under some pressure to answer questions. Researchers should gain interviewee’s informed consent, guarantee anonymity, and make it clear they have a right not to answer any of the questions they do not wish to. Interviews on sensitive topics, or with vulnerable people may also risk causing psychological harm

Question 39

How can the validity of interviews be improved?

Answer 39

Some researchers use techniques to improve chances of obtaining valid data. Eg to reduce chance of interviewees making up answers or telling lies, Kinsey’s interviews asked questions rapidly, giving interviewees little time t think, and used questions to check other answers. Follow up interviews 18 months later also were used to check previous answers. Becker developed another approach in his interviews with 60 Chicago school teachers, he used aggression, disbelief and ‘playing dumb’ as ways of extracting sensitive information they may not have otherwise revealed, about how they classified pupils in terms of social class and ethnic background. However the success of some of these tactics require special skills in the researcher, and so it may be difficult to replicate

Question 40

How have other researchers overcome the problem of cultural differences?

Answer 40

By ensuring the interviewers and interviewees are ethnically and language matched. Eg the interviews for Nazroo’s survey of the health of Britain’s ethnic minorities were carried out in the language of the interviewee’s choice. This also can help improve validity