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Bio > 6.4 > Flashcards

6.4 Flashcards

1
Q

Define a clone.

A

Genetically identical organisms or cells.

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2
Q

Define vegetative propagation.

A

Reproduction from vegetative parts of plant - usually an overwintering organ.

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3
Q

Advantages of natural cloning?

A
  • If environment has conditions of growth good for parent they will also be good for the offspring.
  • Relatively quick allowing organism to take advantage of conditions
  • Only requires one parent
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4
Q

Disadvantages of natural cloning?

A
  • Offspring may become overcrowded
  • No genetic diversity (unless mutation occurs)
  • No selection can occur as result of no variation
  • Environment changes affects all organisms
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5
Q

What are horizontal stems which grow on the surface of the ground called?

A

Stolen or runners.

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6
Q

What are horizontal stems which grow underground called?

A

Rhizomes - these can be overwintering organs where new stems can grow from in spring.

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7
Q

What are stems that grow from the roots of a plant called?

A

Suckers - they form ether at the base of an older root or could be some distance away. In all cases horizontal branch dies leaving stem as separate individual.

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8
Q

Describe Bulbs.

A

Bulbs are an overwintering mechanism which consists of an underground stem that grow fleshy leaf bases. It also has an apical bud. Often it has more then one and each grow into a new plant.

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9
Q

Describe Corms.

A

Solid with an underground stems that grows scaly leaves and buds. Remain underground throughout winter and in spring buds grow to produce more new plants.

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10
Q

How do leaves allow natural cloning to occur?

A

In Kalanchoe plants leaves grow on the margins which drops off and develops its own root.

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11
Q

What are tubers?

A

Underground stem (potatoes)

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12
Q

What is micropropagation?

A

Growing a large number of new plants from meristem tissue from a sample plant.

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13
Q

What is tissue culture?

A

Growing certain tissues, organs or plants from tissue taken from sample plant.

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14
Q

How to create a natural clone of a plant?

A

1) Make a cutting between two leaf joints (nodes)
2) Place cut end of stem into moist soil
3) New roots will grow from tissue in soil usually from the node.
4) Cutting can be dipped in rooting hormone to stimulate root growth

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15
Q

How is tissue culture carried out?

A
  • Take sample of tissue
  • Place onto growth medium in sterile conditions
  • Apply certain growth substances at certain times to encourage differentiation of growing cells.
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16
Q

Explain the step of propagation?

A

1) Plant material selected and cut into pieces, called an explant. Meristem is good choice as free from viral infection.
2) Explants are sterilised using dilute bleach or alcohol to kill bacteria and fungi as conditions supplied later will allow them to grow.
3) Explants are placed onto sterile growth medium containing nutrients (amino acids, glucose & phosphate). Growth medium has high concentration of auxin and cytokinin which stimulates cell division (mitosis) into callus, which is a mass of undifferentiated totipotent cells.
4) Once callus formed its divided to form smaller clumps of undifferentiated cells

5) Small clumps of cells stimulated to grow, divide and differentiate into plant tissue by being placed into different growth mediums.
100: 1 = Roots
4: 1 = Shoots

6) Once plantlet’s formed they are taken to greenhouse to be grown in compost or soil.

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17
Q

What are advantages of artificial cloning?

A
  • Faster then growing from seed
  • Meristem tissue use ensures free from viral infection
  • Phenotype in offspring uniform making easier to grow and harvest
  • Possible with plants that can not sexually reproduce
  • Genetically identical therefore desirable characteristics maintained.
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18
Q

What are disadvantages of artificial cloning?

A
  • Labour intensive
  • No genetic variation
  • Can fail due to microbial contamination
  • All genetically identical therefore all susceptible to same disease/pests.
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19
Q

What is embryo twinning?

A

Splitting of an embryo to create genetically identical embryos

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20
Q

What is enucleation?

A

Removal of cell nucleus

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21
Q

What is Somatic cell nuclear transfer?

A

A technique that involves transferring nucleus from somatic cell to egg cell

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22
Q

Explain steps of embryo splitting?

A

1) Zygote created by IVF
2) Zygote allowed to divide by mitosis into small ball of cells
3) They are then divided and then allowed to continue growing
4) Each mass of cells placed in uterus of surrogate mothers

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23
Q

Explain steps of Somatic cell nuclear transfer

A

1) Egg cell is obtained and nucleus removed via enucleation.
2) Somatic cell from adult to be cloned is isolated and will have nucleus removed
3) Complete adult cell or just nucleus fused with egg cell by applying electric shock
4) Shock triggers development of egg cell as if it has been fertilised
5) Cell undergoes mitosis to produce small batch of cells
6) Young embryo placed into uterus of surrogate mother

24
Q

Arguments for artificial cloning in animals?

A
  • Increase number of endangered species
  • Produce cells or tissue genetically identical to donor for use in repair of damage
  • Produces genetically identical copies of very high value individuals retaining desirable characteristics.
  • Scientific research into effect of hormones and genes with no interference from other genotypes.
25
Q

Arguments against artificial cloning in animals?

A
  • Lack of genetic diversity makes offspring susceptible to same diseases and pests.
  • Success rate is very poor and expensive
  • Ethical issues, is it right to create life simply to destroy it.
26
Q

What is biotechnology?

A

The use of living organisms or parts of living organisms in industrial processes.

27
Q

How was biotechnology used in WW1?

A

Bacterium used to produce acetone for explosives.

28
Q

How was biotechnology used in WW2?

A

Fungus penicillium used to produce penicillin.

29
Q

What are advantages of using microorganisms in biotechnology?

A
  • Micro organisms are cheap to grow
  • Temperature required for reactions lower saving fuel reducing cost
  • Safer as it takes place at normal atmospheric pressure
  • No dependent on climate
  • Microorganisms have short lifecycle and can reproduce quickly
  • Can be genetically modified easily
  • Few ethical considerations
  • Products easy to harvest
30
Q

How is biotechnology used to make yoghurt?

A
  • Yoghurt is fermented milk
  • Bacteria converts lactose into lactic acid
  • Acidity denatures milk protein causing it to coagulate
  • Bacteria partially digests milk making digestion eaier
  • Probiotics can be added to aid digestion further
31
Q

How is biotechnology used to make cheese?

A
  • Milk is pre-treated with bacteria converting lactose into lactic acid.
  • Once acidifies milk mixed with rennet
  • Rennet contains enzyme rennin (chymosin)
  • Rennet breaks down milk protein casein in presence of calcium ions
    1) Kappa-casein which keeps casein in solution is broken down making casein soluble
    2) Casein molecules bind together in presence of calcium ions
  • Solid formed is called curd and after cutting, stirring and heating it is pressed into moulds.
32
Q

How is biotechnology used in baking process?

A
  • Bread is made up of water, salt, flour and yeast
    1) Mixing - ingredients thoroughly mixed by kneading creating dough
    2) Proving/fermenting - dough is left in warm place to anaerobically respirate producing carbon dioxide bubbles that cause dough to rise.
    3) Cooking - risen dough is baked. Any alcohol evaporates in the process.
33
Q

How is biotechnology used to produce alcoholic beverages?

A
  • Product of anaerobic respiration of yeast
  • Wine made using grapes that have yeast on skin
  • Grape contains sugars (fructose and glucose)
  • When grapes crushed, yeast uses sugars to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol
  • Ale/beer brewed using barley grains that are beginning to germinate
  • Process is called malting
  • As grain germinates starch converted into maltose which is respired by yeast
  • Anaerobic respiration again produces alcohol and carbon dioxide.
34
Q

How is biotechnology used to create single-cell protein?

A
  • Microorganisms used to manufacture protein used in food
  • Fungus used is called Fusarium venenatum
  • Quorn
  • No animal fat or cholesterol
35
Q

Advantages of using microorganisms in biotechnology in relation to what they produce?

A
  • Production of protein faster then using animals or plants
  • Biomass produced has high protein content
  • Production increased and decreased according to demand
  • No animal welfare issues
  • Good source of protein
  • No animal fat or cholesterol
  • Genetic modification for specific protein amino acid sequence
  • Production independent of seasonal variations
  • Not much land required
36
Q

What are the disadvantages of using microorganisms in biotechnology in relation to their function.

A
  • Protein has to be purifies to ensure not contaminated
  • Microbial biomass have lots of nucleic acids that need to be reduced
  • Infection - conditions for growth are optimum for pathogens
  • Palatability - taste and texture not traditional.
37
Q

What are the conditions that need to be controlled in a fermenter?

A
  • temperature
  • pH
  • Nutrient availability
  • Oxygen availability
  • concentration of product
38
Q

What is continuous culture?

A
  • Products released from microorganisms during normal metabolism is called primary metabolites
  • Allow continuous production and extraction of products
  • Regular intervals product extracted as well as some cells to avoid dense population
  • Allows specific growth rate
39
Q

What is batch culture?

A
  • Products produced when microorganisms under stress
  • Under stress = dense population or limited nutrients
  • Secondary metabolites produced during stationary phase of growth
  • Fixed period of time before all products extracted
40
Q

Define asepsis.

A

Ensuring sterile conditions maintained

41
Q

Why is asepsis necessary for fermenters?

A
  • Stops competition for nutrients
  • Reduces yield
  • Spoils product
  • Toxic chemicals produced
  • Destroys cultured product
42
Q

How is penicillin produced using batch culture?

A
  • Penicillin is a secondary metabolite
  • Produced due to dense population size of microorganisms
    1) Empty fermenter after 6-8 hours
    2) Crystallise antibiotics by adding potassium components
    3) Mix with inert substances to package for distribution
43
Q

What type of culture is used to produce insulin?

A

Continuous culture

44
Q

What is bioremediation?

A

Using microorganisms to clean soil and underground water system at polluted sites

45
Q

How does bioremediation work?

A

Microorganisms uses contaminants as food source therefore converting harmful substances into less harmful substances

  • Can not be used for cleaning of heavy metals
46
Q

What are conditions that need to be controlled for bioremediation?

A
  • Temperature
  • Water
  • pH
47
Q

What are the advantages of using bioremediation?

A
  • Uses natural system
  • In-situ
  • Less labour
  • Few waste products
48
Q

What is agar?

A

Large polysaccaride of galactose obtained from seaweed, which is used to thicken medium into gel

49
Q

What are septic techniques?

A

Sterile techniques used in culturing and manipulating microorganisms

50
Q

What are two types of growth medium that can be used?

A
  • Soap -like liquid called broth, kept in bottles or tubes

- Set jelly-like substance called agar, which is melted and poured into petri dishes

51
Q

What is the standard procedure to ensure aseptic standards?

A

1) Wash your hands
2) Disinfect work area
3) Have Bunsen burner on causes air to rise and not settle
4) Whenever vessel opened pass neck over flame to avoid bacteria entering
5) Do not lift lid off petri dish completely
6) Glassware or metal equipment should be passed over flame

52
Q

How is sterilisation step carried out on mediums?

A
  • Heated in autoclave to 121 degrees for 15 minutes
  • Kills all living organisms (bacteria and fungi)
  • Once medium cools it is poured into sterile petri dish and lid shut.
53
Q

How is inoculation used to create sterile medium?

A
  • Streaking- a wire inoculating loop is used to transfer a drop of liquid medium onto surface of agar
  • Seeding - sterile pipette used to transfer small drop of liquid on to surface of agar
  • Spreading - sterile glass spreader used to spread inoculate over surface of agar
  • Small cotton swab or bud can be moistened with distilled water and used to collect microorganism from a surface and wiped on agar.
54
Q

How is incubation used in creating a sterile medium?

A
  • Do not seal petri dish completely as this can lead to selection of anaerobic bacteria which may be pathogenic
  • Petri dish placed upside in incubator
  • Upside prevents drops of condensation from falling on surface of agar and from drying out too quickly
  • Sterilise before and after use
55
Q

What happens when bacteria grows in liquid broth?

A

Goes cloudy

Bio (19 decks)

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