6.2.1 cloning and biotechnology Flashcards
how do plants produce clones of themselves naturally and what is this process called
6.2.1(a)
vegetative reproduction-allows them to reproduce asexually by mitosis
what parts of a plant can natural cloning occur from
6.2.1(a)
tubers, rhizomes, bulbs and runners
how do you naturally clone plants by taking a cutting
6.2.1(a)
- steralise a pair of scissors and cut stem at a 45 degree angle to maximise SA for root growth
2.remove most of the leaf
3.dip end in rooting powder
4.place in water then cover with a transparent bag to reduce transpiration - Give time for the cuttings to develop roots and plant it leaving you with a genetically identical plant
3 advantages of vegatative propagation
6.2.1(a)
-easier to harvest
-used to grow plants that are difficult to grow from seeds
-can be done at any time of the year
what are 2 disadvantages of taking cuttings
6.2.1(a)
-clones can be killed by 1 disease
-limited number of clones produced by one plant
what is the process of artificial cloning in plants called
6.2.1(b)
micropropagation
describe the process of micropropagation
6.2.1(b)
- cut meristem tissue which contains totipotent cells-called explant
2.steralise sample with alcohol
3.explants are placed in a steralise liquid containing growth hormone which allows them to undergo mitosis creating a callus - callus is divided and each is moved into a different tube containing growth hormones and nutrients which allows plantlets to form
5.plantlets are placed in compost in a greenhouse
what are some advantages of artificial cloning of plants
6.2.1(b)
-easier to harvest
-used to grow plants that are difficult to grow from seeds
-can be grown at any time of the year
what are some disadvantages of artificial cloning of plants
6.2.1(b)
-clones can be killed by a single disease
-expensive
-requires skill
-can fail due to contamination with pathogens
how do you get monozygotic twins
6.2.1(c)
sperm fertilises egg and Zygote plits into 2 daughter cells
how can animals reproduces asexually
6.2.1(c)
mitosis
what is the main advantage of asexual reproduction
6.2.1(c)
if conditions are good then all offspring should be equally adapted to the good condition and therefore have high fitness
what are 2 ways artificial cloning occurs
6.2.1(d)
embryo twinning
somatic cell nuclear transfer
describe the process of embryo twinning
6.2.1(d)
Artificially fuse an egg and sperm together forming a zygote
The zygote undergoes mitosis to form an embryo
Split the embryo into separate cell masses
Allow the cell mass to undergo mitosis to form an embryo and place into the uterus of the mother
describe somatic cell nuclear transfer
6.2.1(d)
1.extract somatic body cell from the adult you want be cloned ad extract nucleus from body cell
2.take unfertalised egg from another animal and extract nucleus (enucleation) you then have a enucleated egg
3.electrofusion takes place which shock the nucleus into the enucleated cell
4.egg divides by mitosis and forms an embryo
5.put embryo in surrogate who then gives birth
what are 3 arguments for artificial cloning in animals
6.2.1(d)
-clone animals with desired characteristics
-clone genetically modified animals for medicine
-harvest stem cells to grow organs and tissues
what are 3 arguments against artificial cloning in animals
6.2.1(d)
-many cloned embryos fail to develop
-clones often die early + have genetic abnormalities
-ethical issues associated with harvesting stem cells as it couldve developed into an embryo
what is biotechnology
6.2.1(e)
use of biological molecules to produce useful products for human use
how can you use bacteria to make food
6.2.1(e)
make cheese and yogurt
how can you use yeast
6.2.1(e)
to make ethanol and make bread and
ethanol-alcoholic drinks
what kind of metabolite is penicillin
6.2.1(e)
secondary metabolite-produced when the population has stopped growing
produced by fungi and bacteria
how is insulin made
6.2.1(e)
genetically modified bacteria can be used to produce human insulin
what are 4 advantages of using microorganisms for food production
6.2.1(f)
-reproduce quickly so high yields
-healthier high protein low cholesterol alternative
-grown using waste material which reduces cost
-grown in low temperature which reduces cost
no animal welfare issues so suitable for vegies
what are 3 disadvantages of using microorganisms for food production
6.2.1(f)
-contamination causes food to spoil and causes health risks
-people don’t want to eat food made form waste materials
-food has little flavor so may not appeal to picky eaters
what are the 4 substances you need for culturing microorganisms
6.2.1(g)
-nutrients
-oxygen
-optimum temperature
-optimum pH
what are the 2 growth mediums you can use to culture microorganisms
6.2.1(g)
-broth-which is kept in jars
-agar-poured on a petri dish
what are aseptic techniques
6.2.1(g)
techniques used to reduce the likely hood of contaminating the medium with unwanted bacteria or fungi
name some aseptic techniques
6.2.1(g)
-washing hands/wearing gloves
-work near bunsen burner which creates a convection current to move microorganisms up in the air and away from working area
-keep lid on petri dish
-flame neck of bottles
what is sterilisation
6.2.1(g)
the nutrient medium and equipment is heated in an autoclave
what is inoculation
6.2.1(g)
the microorganisms are introduced onto a sterile medium by spreading
what is incubation
6.2.1(g)
petri dishes are sealed with a small amount of tape
what are two ways microorganisms can be grown at a large scale
6.2.1(g)
batch
continuous
what is batch culture
6.2.1(g)
where microorganisms and a fixed volume of broth is added at the beginning to the vat. Time passes the microorganisms die and the products are collected
what is continuous culture
6.2.1(g)
microorganisms and broth are both added at the beginning to the vat. The vat is continuously topped with respiratory substrate and products are continuously removed
which metabolites are found in batch and continuous culture
6.2.1(g)
batch-secondary metabolites as they reach the death phase
continuous-primary metabolites as microorganisms are kept in the exponential phase
what is a primary metabolite
6.2.1(g)
directly involved in growth and reproduction
what is a secondary metabolite
6.2.1(g)
not directly involved in growth and reproduction
describe the lag phase
6.2.1(h)
-popualtion doesnt grow quickly
-population is small and microorganisms are carrying out other activities
eg-transcription and translation, increasing cell size, taking up water
describe the log (exponential) phase
6.2.1(h)
population doubles with each generation
describe stationary phase
6.2.1(h)
-only reached in batch culture
-conc of respiratory substrates decrease
-conc of toxic metabolites increase
-birth rate=death rate and pop stops increasing
describe death phase
6.2.1(h)
all organisms die because of accumulation of toxic metabolites and lack of respiratory substrates
how can you immobalise an enzyme
6.2.1(i)
adding the enzyme to an insoluble material making it easier to collect
what are 3 advantages of immobalising enzyme
6.2.1(I)
-enzymes are reusable which reduces cost
-easier to separate enzymes from products at the end of the reaction reducing costs
-increases temperature tolerance which allows a faster rate of reaction increasing yield
what are 3 disadvantages of immobalising enzymes
6.2.1(i)
-immobalisation reduces the efficiency of enzymes by changig the tertiary structure of the active site or by adding a diffusion distance between enzymes and products
-higher short term costs as enzymes have to be produced before they can be used
-higher trained staff are required to carry out reactions with immobalised enzymes-these people cost money
what are the 2 types of surface immobilisation
6.2.1(i)
enzymes are immobalised by adding they to clay
-adsorption
-covalent bonding
describe adsorption
6.2.1(i)
enzymes are attached to surface by hydrophobic or ionic interactions
2 disadvantages of adsorption
6.2.1(i)
-intercations with the surface are weak so enzymes may fall of and mix with the products
-interactions with the surface may affect the tertiary structure of the enzymes active site making it less efficient at binding to the substrate
describe covalent enzymes
6.2.1(i)
covalent enzymes are covalently bonded to the surface
1 advantage and 1 disadvantage of covalent enzymes
6.2.1(i)
(pos) enzymes are more strongly bonded to the surface so are less likely to become dislodged
-covalent bonds impacts on the enzymes tertiary structure of its active site
what is entrapment and the 2 types
6.2.1(I)
enzymes are immobilised by trapping them in a jelly like structure
in a matrix
encapsulation
in a matrix
6.2.1(i)
enzymes are embedded in a gelatin matrix
advantage and disadvantage of a matrix
6.2.1(i)
-(pos) less impact on active site tertiary structure
-diffusion distance between reactants and enzymes so reaction rate decreases
what is encapsulation
6.2.1(i)
enzymes are captured inside tiny capsules
advantage and disadvantage of encapsulation
6.2.1(i)
-(pos) less impact on tertiary structure of active site
-diffusion distance between reactants and enzymes so diffusion distance decreases
