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Immunology and Microbiology > 5.G Cellular adaptations of growth and differentiation > Flashcards

5.G Cellular adaptations of growth and differentiation Flashcards

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1
Q

What are adaptation of cell growth and differentiation?

A

Changes in cell size, number, appearance or function in response to environmental conditions

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2
Q

5 main types of cellular adaptations

A

Hyperplasia
Hypertrophy
Atropy
Metaplasia
Dysplasia

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3
Q

Which (4) types of cellular adaptations are reversible?

A

Hyperplasia
Hypertrophy
Atrophy
Metaplasia

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4
Q

Which type of cellular adaptations are mechanisms through which cells, tissue and organs adapt by increasing their size?

A

Hyperplasia
Hyerptrophy

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5
Q

What is hyperplasia?

A

Increase in number of cells of an organ or tissue
Results in increase in the volume of tissue

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6
Q

What is hypertrophy?

A

Increase in volume of cells in an organ and thus increase in size of an organ

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7
Q

What do we need to know to be able to predict which mechanism can be used to increase size of organ?

A

Regeneration capacity of the cell

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8
Q

3 types of cells

A

Labile
Stable cells
Permanent cells

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9
Q

Which type of cell is hyperplasia typical of?

A

Labile

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10
Q

Which type of cell do both hyperplasia and hypertrophy?

A

Stable (liver)

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11
Q

Which type of cell is hypertrophy typical of?

A

Permanent cells

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12
Q

2 types of hyperplasia

A

Physiological
Pathological

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13
Q

2 types of physiological hyperplasia

A

Hormonal hyperplasia
Compensatory hyperplasia

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14
Q

2 examples of hormonal hyperplasia

A

Proliferation of granular epithelium of the breast during puberty and pregnancy
Uterus during pregnancy

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15
Q

3 examples of compensatory hyperplasia

A

Liver regeneration
Response to hypoxia and proliferation of medullary red blood cell precursors
Intestinal villi

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16
Q

What cytokine is produced during hypoxia?

A

Erythropoietin

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17
Q

Why is it not correct to call it regeneration (Of ex. liver)?

A

As it does not maintain original morphology

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18
Q

What of the liver can regenerate?

A

Size/volume

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19
Q

Are all cytokines growth factors?

A

Yes

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20
Q

Are all growth factors cytokines?

A

NO

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21
Q

What kind of hormones are growth factors?

A

Protein hormones

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22
Q

What kind of hormones are not growth factors?

A

Amine and steroid hormones

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23
Q

What is liver regeneration induced by?

A

Integrated action of growth factors and cytokines

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24
Q

3 phases of liver regeneration

A

Trigger phase
Growth phase
Termination phase

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25
Q

What happens during the trigger phase of liver regeneration?

A

Kupffer cells produce cytokines (ex. IL-6) which act on hepatocytes and then make competent for the action of growth factors

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26
Q

What does the cytokines produced by kupffer cells during liver regeneration act on?

A

Hepatocytes

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27
Q

What happens during the growth phase of liver regneration?

A

Growth factors (ex HGF) act on competent hepatocytes and induce their proliferation initiation of the cell cycle which takes a few hours, it is preceded by induction of transcriptional factors (ex. AP-1, c-Myc, P53) followed by cyclin synthesis

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28
Q

What does growth factors act on during the growth phase of liver regeneration?

A

Competent hepatocytes

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29
Q

What happens during the termination phase of liver regneration?

A

Release of inhibitory signals (ex TGFbeta and activin) stops cell proliferation when the number of cells or the volume reaches the original size

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30
Q

When does the proliferation stop in liver regneration?

A

When inhibitory signals are released when the liver reaches the original size of number of cells

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31
Q

What are the 3 cytokines of liver regneration?

A

Tumours necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha)
IL-6
IL-4

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32
Q

Which are the 2 growth factors of liver regneration?

A

TGFalpha
Hepatocyte Growth Factor (HGF)

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33
Q

What do the cytokines and growth factors of liver regneration do?

A

Induce cell proliferation

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34
Q

What does TGFalpha bind to?

A

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)

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35
Q

What does HGF bind to?

A

Met receptor

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36
Q

Different name for HGF

A

Scatter factor

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37
Q

What does the cytokines do in liver regneration?

A

Priming of the cell

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38
Q

What does growth factors do in liver regneration?

A

Progression to cell

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39
Q

What are the 2 types of growth factors?

A

Growth factors of proliferative competence
Growth factors of progression

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40
Q

What are the transcription factors involved in liver regeneration?

A

C-myc
AP-1

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41
Q

Is it always the same transcription factors that are involved in liver regeneration?

A

Yes

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42
Q

What is hyperplasia in the intestinal villi?

A

When there is an increase in the mucosal surface and in the height of the villus die to increased functional demand (ex. pregnancy and lactation or diabetes)

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43
Q

What is pathological hyperplasia?

A

When there is an excessive hormonal stimulation

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44
Q

What is endometrial hyperplasia?

A

When there is an imbalance between oestrogen and progesterone
Hyperplasia of the prostate is due to testosterone or androgenic stimulus

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45
Q

What are stem cells and the proliferative cells in contact with in hyperplasia of the epidermis?

A

Basal lamina

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46
Q

What separates the epidermis from the dermis?

A

Stem cells and proliferative cells being in contact with the basal lamina

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47
Q

What are keatinocytes?

A

Stratum corneum cells that have lost the nucleus and are completely differentiated

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48
Q

How long does passage from the basal layer to the stratum corneum take?

A

2-4 weeks

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49
Q

What can be a result of repeated mechanical stimulation?

A

Hyperplasia and thickening of stratum corneum

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50
Q

Which is the most important layer of skin and why?

A

Stratum basale, because cells that are able to divide are there

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51
Q

What is psoriasis?

A

Chronic inflamation

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52
Q

How many percent of the population does psoriasis affect?

A

1-2%

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53
Q

What kind of disease is psoriasis?

A

Autoimmune

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54
Q

What makes psoriasis an autoimmune disease?

A

Lymphocytes are activated by self molecules in basal lamina
Doesn’t recognise self proteins
Is meditated by T cells

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55
Q

What factor can psoriasis be related to?

A

Stress

56
Q

What can be found infiltrated in inflamed skin?

A

Leukocytes

57
Q

How many times is activity of the basal layer increased by in psoriasis?

A

10 times

58
Q

How long does the transition take in psoriasis?

A

4 days (the normal is 2-4 weeks)

59
Q

Is the differentiation process complete in psoriasis?

A

No

60
Q

How are the basal cells in the epidermis arranged in psoriasis?

A

Over several layers

61
Q

What abnormal place can cells in mitosis be found in psoriasis?

A

Above the basal layer

62
Q

Where can inflammation be found in psoriasis?

A

In the dermis

63
Q

What is parakeratosis?

A

Defect cell proliferation where nuclei is located in the scales of stratum corneum

64
Q

What happens when T lymphocytes enter in contact with the basal membrane in psoriasis?

A

They become activated and synthesise cytokines that affect proliferation and differentiation

65
Q

Can hypertrophy be both physiological and pathological?

A

Yes

66
Q

What 2 things is hypertrophy caused by?

A

Increased functional demand
Hormonal stimulation

67
Q

2 examples of increased functional demand causing hypertrophy

A

Intense muscle work in skeletal muscle
Chronic hemodynamic overload int he heart (left ventricle)

68
Q

2 examples of hormonal stimulation causing hypertrophy

A

Pregnant uterus
Breast during lactation

69
Q

What is the increased volume in hypertrophy caused by?

A

Synthesis of a greater quantity of structual components (in particular proteins)

70
Q

What is the increased volume in hypertrophy not caused by?

A

Swelling (influx of water)

71
Q

Where does chronic hemodynamic overload happen?

A

Left ventricle

72
Q

When does chronic hemodynamic overload happen?

A

During hypertension

73
Q

What is chronic hemodynamic overload a response to?

A

Increased workload of the heart fibers

74
Q

What increases during chronic hemodynamic overload?

A

Size of cells (not number)

75
Q

What does chronic hemodynamic overload result in?

A

Thickened wall of the left ventricle

76
Q

What is the increase in cell volume regulated by in cardiac hypertrophy?

A

Mechanical sensors
Vasoactive receptors (ex. alphaadrenergic hormones)
Growth factors (ex. IGF-1)

77
Q

What are receptors at the cytoplasmic level used to induce the activation of in cardiac hypertrophy?

A

Transduction pathways of PI3K and mTok and receptors associated with G proteins

78
Q

What does the activation of transduction pathways in cardiac hypertrophy result in the activation of?

A

GATA4 transcription factor, NFAT, MEF2 and expression of genes coding for muscle proteins

79
Q

What does the activation of transduction pathways in cardiac hypertrophy result in the increase of?

A

Increased synthesis of contractile proteins with increased number of my filaments and increased capacity of the muscle

80
Q

What is hypertrophy associated with the expression of?

A

Embryonic/fetal contractile proteins (ex beta isoform of the heavy myosin chain)

81
Q

What kind of contraction does embryonic/fetal contractile proteins present?

A

Slower contraction allowing the organ to save energy

82
Q

What does ANF stand for?

A

Aerial natviuretic factor

83
Q

What does ANF induce?

A

The kidneys to release more water which reduces the volume of blood and the blood pressure valves

84
Q

What is c-Myc?

A

Transcriptional factor

85
Q

What does c-Myc bid to?

A

Promoter or enhances region of genes that codifies for proteins involved in transition G0 or G1 to S

86
Q

What is c-Myc able to do in a cell?

A

Induce proliferation

87
Q

Aside from proliferation, what is c-Myc important in?

A

Differentiation
Survival
Apoptosis
Metabolism

88
Q

What kind of gene is p-53?

A

Oncosupressor gene

89
Q

Does p-53 induce cell proliferation?

A

No

90
Q

What does p-53 induce?

A

A block of cell proliferation
The synthesis of molecules that inhibit cyclin dependant kinases (ex. p-21)

91
Q

When does hypotrophy of the intestinal villi take place?

A

When there is prolonged fasting

92
Q

What can atrophy be a cause of?

A

Apoptosis

93
Q

Different name for atrophy?

A

Hypotrophy

94
Q

What is atrophy?

A

The reduction of size of an organ or tissue by reducing number or size of cells (loss of cell material)

95
Q

What is atrophy caused by?

A

Decrease in protein synthesis and increase in protein degradation

96
Q

When does physiological atrophy occur?

A

During embryonic and fetal development

97
Q

7 causes of pathological atrophy

A

Reduction of workload
Inadequate nutrition
Loss of endocrine stimulation
Denervation
Ageing
Compression
Reduction of blood flow

98
Q

What does ageing cause the atrophy of?

A

The frontal lobe

99
Q

Clinical syndrome of pathological atrophy caused by inadequate nutrition

A

Cachexia

100
Q

Is metaplasia reversible?

A

Yes

101
Q

What is metaplasia?

A

Reversible alteration where a differentiated tissue of a certain type is replaced by on of a different type

102
Q

What is metaplasia an adaptive response to?

A

Stress

Cell type which is sensitive to the adverse condition is replaced by a more resistant type of same histogenetic origin

103
Q

In adults what kind of origin does the tissue which experiences metaplasia have?

A

Only:
Epithelial
Mesenchymal

104
Q

3 different events of metaplasia

A

Cell A changes directly in cell B
Cell A is eliminated and its progenitors produce cell B
New cell type is the result of reprogramming of undifferentiated stem cells or mesenchymal cells

105
Q

Is metaplasia a normal physiological process?

A

No

106
Q

What kind of lesion is metaplasia considered to be?

A

Preneoplastic lesion

107
Q

What can be the first step in cancer

A

Metaplasia

108
Q

What happens if the stimulus that predisposes to metaplasia persists?

A

It can induce neoplastic transformation in the mesa tic epithelium

109
Q

In epithelial metaplasia what is replaced by multilayered flat epithelium?

A

Cylindrical cell epithelia or transitional epithelia

110
Q

What can epithelial metaplasia be a result of?

A

Smoking (both in trachea, bronchi and oral cavity)
Shortage of vitamin (especially vitamin A)
Calcus in gallbladder

111
Q

Why can a shortage in vitamin A cause epithelial metaplasia?

A

It is important in the maintenance of epithelial diffeentiation

112
Q

What is mesenchymal metaplasia?

A

Formation of cartilage, bone and adipose tissue in tissues not containing these elements
(replacing non-mesenchymal cells with mesenchymal cells)

113
Q

What can bone metaplasia develop in muscle as a result of?

A

Trauma (traumatic ossifying myositis)

114
Q

As a part of what sequence can bone metaplasia take place in ateriosclerotic arteries?

A

Clacification -> ossification

115
Q

Where is metaplastic bone sometimes formed in paraplegic patients and why?

A

Around the joints
Unknown reason

116
Q

What kind of scars is bone metaplasia especially observed in?

A

Those resulting from abdominal operations

117
Q

What is dysplasia?

A

Disordered growth
Alteration of cell proliferation and differentiation

118
Q

Where is dysplasia often observed ?

A

Scaly epithelia as a result of continuous insult

119
Q

What makes dysplasia different from the other conditions?

A

It is irreversible

120
Q

Is dysplasia reversible?

A

NO

121
Q

What can dysplasia represent the initial stages of?

A

Cancer

122
Q

What is dysplasia characterised by?

A

Loss of uniformity of individual cells
Loss of architectural orientation of cells
Remarkable polymorphism
Hyperchromatic nuclei
Mitosis is more frequent and localised at the superficial level
Differenting alterations

123
Q

Does in situ carcinomas invade the connective tissue?

A

No

124
Q

Where are in situ carcinomas localised?

A

Epithelium and basal membrane (is not destruct)

125
Q

What does HPV stand for?

A

Human papilloma virus

126
Q

What is HPV?

A

Dysplasia in the uterine cervix

127
Q

What is the most important factor effecting the appearance of the uterus?

A

HPV

128
Q

What are dysplasia and (more so) anaplasia characterised by?

A

Numerus morphologival and functional changes

129
Q

What is pleiomorphism?

A

The presence of cells different in size and shape, large and hyper chromatic nuclei: nuclei contain a characteristic quantity of DNA higher than normal

130
Q

What is frequent or abnormal mitosis a sign of?

A

Malignancy (abnormal mitosis is always a sign of this)

131
Q

What is the presence of giant cells a sign of?

A

Malignancy

132
Q

How is cell orientation in a tissue altered?

A

Anapaestic cells lose polarity, epithelial cells are polarised and thus cell orientation in the tissue is altered

133
Q

What is controlled proliferative variations?

A

Control of cell multiplication is active and are reversibel processes

134
Q

Is tumor growth reversible?

A

No

135
Q

What is tumor growth?

A

Process that escape the control of growth

Immunology and Microbiology (11 decks)

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