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Biology > 5.1.4 - Hormonal communication > Flashcards

5.1.4 - Hormonal communication Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the purpose of the endocrine system ?

A

To react to changes in the body

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2
Q

Why does the endocrine system use hormones ?

A

To send information about changes in the environment around the body to bring about a designated response

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3
Q

What is the endocrine system made of ?

A

Endocrine glands

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4
Q

What is an endocrine gland ?

A

A gland that is specialised to secrete hormones

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5
Q

What do the endocrine glands release ?

A
  • Hormones
    • Secreted directly into the bloodstream
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6
Q

Give some examples of endocrine glands

A
  • Adrenal glands
  • Pancreas glands
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7
Q

What is an advantage of the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus being so close together ?

A

It ensures that the nervous and hormonal responses of the body are closely linked and coordinated

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8
Q

What hormones does the pituitary gland produce ?

A
  • Growth hormone
  • Anti-diuretic hormone
  • Gonadotrophins
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9
Q

What is the purpose of the growth hormone ?

A

Controls growth of bones and muscles

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10
Q

What is the purpose of anti-diuretic hormones ?

A

Controls the absorption of water in kidneys

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11
Q

What is the purpose of gonadotrophins ?

A

Control development of ovaries and testes

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12
Q

What hormones does the thyroid gland produce ?

A

Thyroxine

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13
Q

What is the purpose of thyroxine ?

A
  • Controls the rate of metabolism and rate that glucose is used up in respiration
  • Promotes growth
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14
Q

What hormones does the adrenal gland produce ?

A

Adrenaline

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15
Q

What is the purpose of adrenaline ?

A

Increases heart rate, breathing rate and it raises blood sugar level

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16
Q

What hormones does the testis produce ?

A

Testosterone

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17
Q

What is the purpose of testosterone ?

A

Controls sperm production and secondary sexual characteristics

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18
Q

What hormone does the pineal gland produce ?

A

Melatonin

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19
Q

What is the function of melatonin ?

A

It affects reproductive development and daily cycles

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20
Q

What hormone does the thymus produce ?

A

Thymosin

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21
Q

What is the function of thymosin ?

A

Promotes production and maturation of white blood cells

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22
Q

What hormones does the pancreas produce ?

A
  • Insulin
  • Glucagon
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23
Q

What is the function of insulin ?

A

Converts excess glucose into glycogen in the liver

Lower blood glucose level

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24
Q

What is the function of glucagon ?

A

Converts glycogen back to glucose in the liver

Increase blood glucose levels

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25
Q

What hormones does the ovary produce ?

A
  • Oestrogen
  • Progesterone
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26
Q

What is the function of oestrogen ?

A

Controls ovulation and secondary sexual characteristics

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27
Q

What is the function of progesterone ?

A

Prepares the uterus lining for receiving an embryo

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28
Q

Why are hormones sometimes referred to as chemical messengers ?

A

They carry information from one part of the body to another

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29
Q

What can hormones be ?

A
  • Steroids
  • Proteins
  • Glycoproteins
  • Polypeptides
  • Amines
  • Tyrosine derivatives
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30
Q

Where are hormones secreted ?

A

Directly into the blood when a gland is stimulated

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31
Q

What can cause hormones to be secreted ?

A
  • A change in concentration of a particular substance
  • The result of another hormone or a nerve impulse
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32
Q

What transports hormones ?

A

The blood plasma all over the body

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33
Q

Once secreted, where do the hormones go ?

A
  • They diffuse out of the blood and bind to specific receptors for that hormone
    • These receptors are found on the membranes or in the cytoplasm of cells in the target organs. These are known as Target cells
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34
Q

What do hormones trigger once they are bound to their receptors ?

A

They stimulate the target cells to produce a response

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35
Q

What is a result of hormones not being directly released into their target cells ?

A

A slower and less specific form of communication

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36
Q

What is a result of hormones not being broken down as quickly as neurotransmitters ?

A

Can result in a much longer lasting and widespread effect

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37
Q

Type of communication - Hormonal VS Nervous

A
  • Hormones in hormonal system
  • Nerve impulses in nervous system
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38
Q

Transmission - Hormonal VS Nervous

A
  • By the blood stream and relatively slow in hormonal system
  • By the neurones and rapid in nervous system
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39
Q

Where they travel - Hormonal VS Nervous

A
  • Hormones travel to all parts of the body, but only target organs respond
  • Nerve impulses travel to specific parts of the body
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40
Q

Response - Hormonal VS Nervous

A
  • Response is widespread and slow in hormonal
  • Response is localised and rapid in nervous
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41
Q

How long the effect lasts - Hormonal VS Nervous

A
  • Effect may be permanent for hormonal
  • Effect is temporary for nervous
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42
Q

Are they reversible - Hormonal VS Nervous

A
  • Irreversible for hormonal
  • Reversible for nervous
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43
Q

Where are the adrenal glands located ?

A
  • On top of each kidney
  • Made up of two distinct parts surrounded by a capsule
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44
Q

What are the two parts of the adrenal glands ?

A
  • Adrenal cortex
  • Adrenal medulla
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45
Q

What is the adrenal cortex ?

A
  • The outer region of the glands
  • This produces Cortisol and Aldosterone
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46
Q

What is the adrenal medulla ?

A
  • The inner region of the glands
  • Produces adrenaline
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47
Q

What controls the hormones released from the adrenal cortex ?

A

The pituitary gland

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48
Q

What are the three main types of hormones produced by the adrenal cortex ?

A
  • Glucocorticoids
  • Mineralocorticoids
  • Androgens
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49
Q

What are glucocorticoids ?

A
  • Cortisol
  • Corticosterone
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50
Q

What is the function of cortisol ?

A
  • Helps regulate metabolism by controlling how the body converts fats, proteins and carbs to energy
  • Helps regulate blood pressure and cardiovascular function in response to stress
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51
Q

What is the function of corticosterone ?

A

Works with cortisol to regulate immune response and suppress inflammatory reactions

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52
Q

What controls the release of glucocorticoids ?

A

Hypothalamus

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53
Q

What are the mineralocorticoids ?

A

Aldosterone

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54
Q

What is the function of aldosterone ?

A

Helps control blood pressure by maintaining the balance between salt and water concentrations in the blood and body fluids

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55
Q

What controls the release of mineralocorticoids ?

A

The kidney

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56
Q

What are androgens ?

A

Small amounts of male and female sex hormones

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57
Q

What is the impact of androgens like ?

A

Relatively small impact compared to oestrogen and progesterone

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58
Q

When are androgens important ?

A

Always but especially in women after the meno pause

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59
Q

What releases androgens ?

A

Ovaries and testes

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60
Q

When are the hormones of the adrenal medulla released ?

A
  • When the body is stressed
  • When the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated
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61
Q

What hormones does the adrenal medulla release ?

A
  • Adrenaline
  • Noradrenaline
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62
Q

What is the function of adrenaline ?

A
  • Increases the heart rate sending blood quickly to the muscles and brain
  • It also rapidly raises blood glucose levels by converting glycogen to glucose in the liver
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63
Q

What is the function of noradrenaline ?

A
  • Produces effects such as increased heart rate, widening of pupils, widening of air passages in the lungs and the narrowing of blood vessels in non essential organs

This results in higher blood pressure

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64
Q

Where is the pancreas found ?

A

Upper abdomen, behind the stomach

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65
Q

What type of organ is the pancreas ?

A

Glandular organ

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66
Q

What is the pancreas’s overall role ?

A
  • Produce and secrete hormones and digestive enzymes
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67
Q

What are the two functions of the pancreas ?

A
  • Exocrine gland
  • Endocrine gland
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68
Q

What is the pancreas’s function as an exocrine gland ?

A

To produce enzymes and release them via a duct into the duodenum

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69
Q

What is the pancreas’s function as an endocrine gland ?

A

To produce hormones and release them into the blood

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70
Q

What type of tissue is most of the pancreas made of ?

A

Exocrine glandular tissue

71
Q

What is exocrine glandular tissue responsible for ?

A

Producing digestive enzymes and an alkaline fluid called pancreatic juice

72
Q

Once secreted, where do the enzymes and pancreatic juices end up ?

A

The duodenum via the pancreatic duct via smaller ducts

73
Q

What is the duodenum ?

A

The top part of the small intestine

74
Q

What are the three types of digestive enzymes the pancreas produces ?

A
  • Amylases
  • Proteases
  • Lipases
75
Q

What are the role of amylases ?

A
  • Break down starch into simple sugars
  • e.g. pancreatic amylase
76
Q

What are the role of proteases ?

A
  • Break down proteins into amino acids
  • e.g. trypsin
77
Q

What are the role of lipases ?

A
  • Break down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
  • e.g. pancreatic lipase
78
Q

What hormones is the pancreas responsible for producing ?

A
  • Insulin
  • Glucagon
79
Q

What do glucagon and insulin play a role in ?

A

Controlling blood glucose concentration

80
Q

Where are the islets of langerhans found ?

A

They are endocrine tissues found within the exocrine tissue in the pancreas

81
Q

What is the function of the cells in the islets of langerhans ?

A

They are responsible for producing glucagon and insulin and secreting these hormones directly into the bloodstream

82
Q

Islets of langerhans vs Pancreatic acini - Appearance (staining)

A
  • Islets of langerhans are lightly stained
  • Pancreatic acini are darker stained
83
Q

Islets of langerhans vs Pancreatic acini - Shape

A
  • Islets of langerhans are in large spherical clusters
  • Pancreatic acini are in small berrylike clusters
84
Q

Islets of langerhans vs Pancreatic acini - Type of tissue

A
  • Islets of langerhans are endocrine
  • Pancreatic acini are exocrine
85
Q

Islets of langerhans vs Pancreatic acini - Function

A
  • Islets of langerhans produce and secrete hormones
  • Pancreatic acini produce and secrete digestive enzymes
86
Q

What are the two types of cells within the islets of langerhans ?

A

Alpha and beta cells

87
Q

What is the role of alpha cells ?

A

Secrete glucagon

88
Q

What is the role of the beta cells ?

A

Secrete insulin

89
Q

Which type of cell is present more in the islet of langerhans ?

A

Alpha cells are larger and more numerous

90
Q

What does the body use to produce ATP ?

A

Glucose

91
Q

What type of a molecule is glucose ?

A
  • Small and soluble
  • Carried in the blood plasma
92
Q

What is the concentration of glucose normally like in the blood plasma ?

A

90mg per cm3 of blood

93
Q

What can cause blood glucose concentration to increase ?

A
  • Diet
  • Glycogenolysis
  • Gluconeogenesis
94
Q

How can your diet increase the amount of blood glucose in your blood ?

A
  • When you eat carb rich food and sweet foods, the carbs they contain are broken down in the digestive system to release glucose
  • The glucose is released into the bloodstream which increases the blood glucose concentration
95
Q

What is glycogenolysis ?

A
  • Glycogen stored in the liver and muscle cells is broken down into glucose
  • The glucose is released into the bloodstream which increases the blood glucose concentration
96
Q

What does glycogenolysis actually mean ?

A

The splitting of glycogen (to produce glucose)

97
Q

What is gluconeogenesis ?

A
  • This is the production of glucose from non carb sources
  • The liver can make glucose from glycerol (lipids) and amino acids
  • The glucose is released into the bloodstream which increases the blood glucose concentration
98
Q

What does gluconeogenesis actually mean ?

A

Formation of new glucose

99
Q

What can cause blood glucose concentration to decrease ?

A
  • Respiration
  • Glycogenesis
100
Q

How can respiration cause the blood glucose concentration to decrease ?

A

Some of the glucose in the blood is used by cells to release energy. This is required to carry out normal body functions

101
Q

What is the correlation between physical activity and the demand for glucose ?

A

The higher the level of physical activity, the higher the demand for glucose and the greater the decrease of blood glucose concentration

102
Q

What is glycogenesis ?

A
  • The production of glycogen
  • When blood glucose concentration is too high, excess glucose taken in through the diet is converted into glycogen which is stored in the liver
103
Q

What does lysis mean ?

A

Splitting

104
Q

What does neo mean ?

A
  • New
105
Q

What does genesis mean ?

A

Means birth/origin

106
Q

Where is insulin produced ?

A

By the beta cells in the islets of langerhans

107
Q

What is the role of insulin ?

A

If the blood glucose concentration is too high, the beta cells detect this and respond by secreting insulin to lower the blood glucose concentration

108
Q

Which cells do not have insulin receptors on the cell surface membrane ?

A

red blood cells

109
Q

What does insulin cause when it binds to its glycoprotein receptors ?

A
  • Causes a change in the tertiary structure of the glucose transport protein (GTP) channels
  • This causes the channels to open allowing more glucose to renter the cells
110
Q

What does insulin also activate ?

A

Enzymes within some cells to convert glucose into glycogen and fat

111
Q

How does insulin lower the blood glucose concentration ?

A
  • Increasing the rate of absorption of glucose by cells
  • Increasing the rate of respiration
  • Increasing the rate of glycogenesis
  • Increasing the rate of glucose to fat conversion
  • Inhibiting the release of glucagon from the alpha cells of the islets of langerhans
112
Q

How does increasing the respiratory rate of cells decrease blood glucose concentration ?

A

This increases their need for glucose and causes a higher uptake of glucose from the blood

113
Q

How does increasing the rate of glycogenesis decrease blood glucose concentration ?

A

Insulin stimulates the liver to remove glucose from the blood by turning the glucose into glycogen and storing it in the liver and muscle cells

114
Q

What detects the blood glucose concentration turning back to normal (insulin) ?

A

The beta cells of the islets of langerhans in the liver

115
Q

What happens when glucose concentration falls below a certain level (insulin)?

A

The beta cells reduce their secretion of insulin

116
Q

What does negative feedback ensure ?

A

That in any control system, changes are reversed and returned back to the set level

117
Q

Where is glucagon produced ?

A

In the alpha cells of the islets of langerhans

118
Q

What is the role of glucagon ?

A

When blood glucose concentration is too low, the alpha cells detect this and respond by secreting glucagon which increases the blood glucose in the blood

119
Q

Which cells have glucagon receptors ?

A
  • liver cells and fat cells
    • Therefore these are the only cells that can respond to glucagon
120
Q

How does glucagon raise blood glucose concentration ?

A
  • Increasing Glycogenolysis
  • Increasing Gluconeogenesis
  • Reducing the amount of glucose absorbed by the liver cells
121
Q

How does glycogenesis decrease blood glucose ?

A

Causes the formation of more glycogen

122
Q

How does increasing gluconeogenesis increase blood glucose ?

A

Increasing the concentration of amino acids and glycerol into glucose in the liver

123
Q

What detects the blood glucose concentration turning back to normal (glucagon) ?

A

The alpha cells of the islets of langerhans in the liver

124
Q

What happens when glucose concentration falls below a certain level (glucagon)?

A

The alpha cells reduce their secretion of glucagon

125
Q

Why is the system of maintaining blood glucose concentration said to be self regulating ?

A

As it is the level of glucose in the blood that determines the quantity of insulin and glucagon that is released

126
Q

What is one of the effects of adrenaline ?

A

Raise the blood glucose concentration to allow more respiration to occur

127
Q

Control of insulin secretion - Normal levels

A

Potassium channels in the plasma membrane of the beta cells are open and potassium ions diffuse out of the cell.

The inside of the cell is at a potential of -70mV with respect to the outside of the cell

128
Q

Control of insulin secretion - High blood glucose

A
  • Glucose enters the cell by a glucose transporter
  • The glucose is then metabolised inside the mitochondria, resulting in the production of ATP
  • The ATP binds to potassium channels and causes them to close. They are known as ATP sensitive potassium channels
  • As potassium ions can no longer diffuse out of the cell, the potential difference reduces to around -30 mV and depolarisation occurs
  • Depolarisation causes the voltage gated calcium channels to open
  • Calcium ions enter the cell and cause secretory vesicles to release the insulin they contain by exocytosis
129
Q

What hormones does the body rely on to keep blood glucose constant ?

A
  • Glucagon
  • Insulin
130
Q

What does having diabetes mean ?

A

It means that you are unable to metabolise carbs properly, in particular glucose

131
Q

What cant your body do if you suffer from diabetes ?

A
  • Your pancreas either does not produce enough insulin
  • Your body cannot effectively respond to the insulin produced
132
Q

What is hyperglycaemia ?

A
  • Raised blood sugar
  • It is a common effect of uncontrolled diabetes
133
Q

What can hyperglycaemia lead to over time ?

A

Serious damage of many body systems, especially the nerves and blood vessels

134
Q

What are the common symptoms of diabetes ?

A
  • High blood glucose concentration
  • Excessive need to urinate (polyuria)
  • Excessive thirst (polydipsia)
  • Constant hunger
  • Weight loss
  • Tiredness
135
Q

What are the two main types of diabetes ?

A
  • Type 1 diabetes
  • Type 2 diabetes
136
Q

What cant people with type 1 diabetes do ?

A
  • The beta cells in the islets of langerhans do not produce insulin
137
Q

What is the cause of type 1 diabetes ?

A
  • It is not known at the moment , the disease cannot be cured or prevented
  • In many cases it arises as a result of an autoimmune response where the body’s own immune system attacks the beta cells
138
Q

How can you treat type 1 diabetes ?

A

Insulin injections

139
Q

When does type 1 diabetes arise ?

A

In childhood, and people develop the symptoms quickly

140
Q

What cant people with type 2 diabetes do ?

A
  • They cannot effectively use insulin and control their blood sugar levels
  • This is either because the persons beta cells do not produce enough insulin or the persons body cells do not respond to insulin
141
Q

Why cant diabetics effectively use insulin ?

A
  • The glycoprotein insulin receptors on the cell membrane do not work properly
  • The cells lose their responsiveness to insulin, and therefore do not take up enough glucose, leaving it in
142
Q

What can cause type 2 diabetes ?

A
  • Excess body weight
  • Physical inactivity
  • Habitual and excessive overeating of refined carbs
143
Q

How can you treat type 2 diabetes ?

A

Exercising

144
Q

When does the risk of type 2 diabetes increase ?

A

The risk of type 2 diabetes increases with age

145
Q

What is type 1 diabetes said to be ?

A
  • It is said to be insulin dependent
  • This is because it has to be controlled with regular injections
146
Q

What do people with type 1 diabetes regularly have to do ?

A

Regularly have to test their blood glucose concentration, normally by pricking their finger

147
Q

Why do people with type 1 diabetes have to prick their fingers ?

A
  • The drop of blood is analysed by the machine, which tells the person their BG level
  • The person can then work out the dose of insulin they need to inject
148
Q

What does the administration of insulin do ?

A
  • Increases the amount of glucose absorbed by cells (increases the rate of respiration)
  • Causes glycogenesis to occur, resulting in a reduction of blood glucose concentration
149
Q

What will happen if you inject yourself with too much insulin ?

A

They may experience hypoglycaemia

150
Q

What will happen if you inject yourself with too little insulin ?

A

They may experience hyperglycaemia

151
Q

What is hypoglycaemia ?

A

Very low blood glucose concentrations that can result in unconsciousness

152
Q

What is hyperglycaemia ?

A

Can result in unconsciousness and death if left untreated

153
Q

What is the first line of control in type 2 diabetes ?

A

Regulate the persons carb intake through their diet and matching this to their exercise levels

154
Q

What does regulating carbohydrate intake involve ?

A
  • Increasing exercise levels
  • Losing weight
155
Q

What do type 2 diabetics do if diet and exercise are not enough ?

A
  • Drugs have to be used
  • These can be drugs that stimulate insulin production or slow down the rate at which the body absorbs glucose from the intestine
156
Q

Where was insulin originally obtained from ?

A

Pancreas of cows and pigs

157
Q

What could insulin from animals cause ?

A

Allergic reactions because it differed slightly from human insulin

158
Q

When was the structure of human insulin identified ?

A

In 1955

159
Q

How is insulin now made ?

A

Made by genetically modified bacteria

160
Q

What advantages are there for insulin from GM bacteria ?

A
  • Less likely to cause allergic reactions
  • Insulin can be produced in much higher quantities
  • Production costs are much cheaper
  • Ethical and religious concerns of using animal insulin are now overcome
161
Q

What is the relationship between transplantable pancreases and their availability ?

A

The demand for transplantable pancreases heavily outweighs their availability

162
Q

Why are immunosuppressant drugs needed after a transplant ?

A

To ensure that the body accepts the transplanted pancreas, which can leave a person susceptible to infection

163
Q

How have doctors attempted to cure diabetes ?

A

By injecting patients with pancreatic beta islet cells

164
Q

How many cell transplants have been successfully performed ?

A

Fewer than 8% of cell transplants have been successful

165
Q

What do the immunosuppressant drugs do to insulin producing cells ?

A
  • Increase the metabolic demand of insulin producing cells.
  • Eventually this exhausts their capacity to produce insulin
166
Q

Why is type 1 diabetes a candidate for stem cell therapy ?

A

There is evidence that a relatively small number of islet cells can restore insulin production

167
Q

What potential do totipotent stem cells have ?

A

They have the potential to grow into any type of cells

168
Q

Where would stem cells to treat type 1 diabetes be taken from ?

A

Embryos

169
Q

How do we obtain the stem cells from the embryo ?

A
  • We have to destroy the early embryo
  • This means destroying a potential human life
170
Q

Evaluation for using an embryo for the stem cells (ethical)

A
  • The embryos used as a source for these stem cells would usually be destroyed anyways
  • They are spare embryos from infertility treatments or from terminated pregnancies
171
Q

What is another alternative to using embryonic matter ?

A

Using preserved umbilical stem cells

172
Q

What advantages does the use of stem cells offer ?

A
  • Donor availability would not be an issue
    • Stem cells can produce an unlimited source of new beta cells
  • Reduced likelihood of rejection as embryonic stem cells are generally not rejected
  • People no longer have to inject themselves with insulin
173
Q

How can stem cells be made ?

A

By somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)

174
Q

What is a major consideration surrounding transporting stem cells into the body ?

A

They might induce the formation of tumours as a result of unlimited cell growth

Biology (30 decks)

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