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Childhood Dev't > 5. Physical Dv't in Infants & Toddlers > Flashcards

5. Physical Dv't in Infants & Toddlers Flashcards

1
Q

Cephalocaudal principle

A

Children start out with large head-to-body proportions. As they grow up, the proportions change.

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2
Q

How does muscle develop in early childhood?

A
  • all muscles are present at birth
  • they become longer and thicker
  • this accelerates during adolescence
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3
Q

How does fat develop in early childhood?

A
  • accumulates rapidly in the first year
  • become leaner in pre-school years
  • acquire more fat in early elementary, accelerating during adolescence
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4
Q

How does bone develop in early childhood?

A
  • begin to form prenatally.

- start as cartilage, then harden in middle, ends, then between

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5
Q

epiphyses

A

the ends of the cartilage structures that turn into bone

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6
Q

secular growth trends

A

changes in physical development between generations that are related to environmental factors

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7
Q

describe the difference between average and normal growth

A

the normal range is much wider than the average

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8
Q

3 factors affecting physical growth

A
  1. heredity
  2. hormones
  3. nutrition
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9
Q

hormones

A

chemicals that are released by glands and travel in blood streams to act on other areas of the body

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10
Q

what is the role of the pituitary gland

A
  • produces growth hormones (GH)
  • usually during sleep, but sometimes after exercise
  • triggers the liver to release a hormone that causes muscle and bone growth
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11
Q

thyroxine

A

a hormone released by the thyroid gland that is essential for nerve-cell development

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12
Q

why do babies require a lot of calories

A

growth takes a LOT of energy, and is very rapid in infancy

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13
Q

why is bottle-feeding dangerous in developing nations?

A
  • contaminated water, causing illness

- malnutrition from using less formula to save cost

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14
Q

what changes at age two regarding nutrition?

A
  • growth slows, so does appetite

- pickiness - eating only familiar foods can be adaptive

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15
Q

advantages of breastfeeding

A
  • ensures babies get proper nutrition
  • proper balance of carbs, fats, protein, vitamins, minerals
  • mom’s antibodies
  • less indigestion
  • change to solids more easily (used to changing flavours)
  • not contaminated
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16
Q

advantages of bottle-feeding

A
  • formula still gives the baby what they need
  • dad can help and connect with baby
  • no long-term differences in physical/psychological development
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17
Q

malnourished

A

Lacking adequate nutrition. Indicated by small size for age.

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18
Q

how does malnutrition affect development

A
  • no affect on physical development in the end
  • malnourished-as-infants lower intelligence scores
  • trouble maintaining attention
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19
Q

3 things necessary to prevent malnutrition

A
  • food availability
  • nutrition education
  • behavioural change (nurturing engagement)
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20
Q

What is IMCI

A

Integrated Management of Childhood Illness

  • combats the 5 biggest causes of childhood death
    1. training health care professionals
    2. improving health care systems
    3. changing family/community practices
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21
Q

highest cause of death after the first year

A

accidents

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22
Q

5 biggest causes of infancy death

A 
pneumonia
malaria
diarrhea
malnutrition
measles
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23
Q

neuron

A

a cell in the nervous system that specializes in transmitting information

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24
Q

neuronal cell body

A

a structure at the centre of a neuron containing biological mechanisms for maintaining cellular life.

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25
Q

dendrite

A

the receiving end of the neuron; branch-like

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26
Q

axon

A

the sending end of the neuron; tube-shaped

transmits message from the dendrites to other cells

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27
Q

myelin

A

a fatty sheath that insulates the axon and allows it to send messages faster

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28
Q

terminal buttons

A

structures at the end of axons that release neurotransmitters

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29
Q

neurotransmitters

A

chemicals in the terminal buttons that carry information to nearby dendrites

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30
Q

synapse

A

the gap between one neuron’s axon and the other neuron’s dendrite.

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31
Q

cerebral cortex

A
  • outer later of the brain
  • 10 billion neurons
  • many of the functions we think of as human
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32
Q

cerebral hemispheres

A

the right and left halves of the cerebral cortex

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33
Q

corpus callosum

A

a thick bundle of axons that link the right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex

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34
Q

frontal cortex

A

an area of the brain that is responsible for planful activities and personality

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35
Q

what is the left cortex responsible for?

A
  • produce and understand language
  • reason
  • compute
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36
Q

what is the right cortex responsible for?

A
  • artistic and musical abilities
  • perception of spatial relationships
  • ability to recognize faces and emotions
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37
Q

neural plate

A

a group of cells that form about 3 weeks after conception that develops into the neural tube, brain, and spinal cord

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38
Q

brain development

A
  • 3 weeks - neural plate
  • 4 weeks - plate forms tube
  • 10 weeks - ends fuse, neurons produce at one end
  • 28 weeks - all neurons produced that ever will be
  • 4 months - myelin
  • 7 months - all neurons in their final places
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39
Q

how fast do neurons grow during development

A

4000 per second

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40
Q

myelin development

A

starts at 4 months and continues into adolescence

- seen in improved coordination and reaction time

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41
Q

how does the brain grow after birth

A
  • no new neurons
  • axons lengthen
  • dendrites branch and grow
  • many new connections (synapses)
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42
Q

synaptic pruning

A

a period in infancy (and adolescence) when the synapses begin to disappear as the brain weeds out unnecessary or underutilized connection between neurons

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43
Q

EEG

A
  • electroencephalogram

- an electrical measurement of brain waves

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44
Q

fMRI

A
  • functional magnetic resonance imaging

- measures the flow of blood in the brain using magnetic fields

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45
Q

PET scan

A
  • positron emmission tomography

- traces radioactive glucose uptake in the brain

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46
Q

fNIRS

A
  • functional near infrared spectroscopy
  • measures flow of blood in the brain
  • less invasive than fMRI
  • silent (good for auditory stimuli)
  • easier to use with infants
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47
Q

describe hemispheric specialization at birth

A

already begun; happens early

  • e.g. left hemisphere already specialized for language, so language development happens more rapidly
  • some specialization happens more slowly - e.g. facial recognition by preschool years
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48
Q

describe the frontal cortex

A
  • regulates intentional behaviour and feelings - happiness, sadness, fear
  • LFC regulates infants’ tendency to approach/explore
  • RFC regulates tendency to avoid or escape
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49
Q

left hemisphere

A

language processing

50
Q

right hemisphere

A

recognizing non-speech sounds, emotions, faces

51
Q

neuroplasticity

A

the extent to which brain organization is flexible

52
Q

motor skills

A

coordinated movements of the limbs and muscles - ex. crawling

53
Q

locomotion

A

moving around the world - crawl, stand, walk

54
Q

opposable thumb - purpose

A

grasp and manipulate objects

55
Q

fine-motor skills

A

activities that involve small muscle groups - grasping, holding, manipulating objects

56
Q

gross-motor skills

A

activities requiring large muscle groups - running, throwing, jumping

57
Q

reflexes

A

unlearned responses that are triggered by a specific form of stimulation

58
Q

Babinski reflex

A

reflex where a babies toes fan out when the sole is stroked heel to toe
- unknown purpose

59
Q

Blink reflex

A

baby’s eyes close in response to light or noise

- protect senses

60
Q

Moro reflex

A

baby throws its arms out, then in when head falls or loud noise
- helps cling to mother

61
Q

Palmar reflex

A

baby grasps an object placed in hand

- precursor to walking??

62
Q

Rooting reflex

A

baby turns head and opens mouth when cheek stroked

- helps find nipple

63
Q

Stepping reflex

A

baby ‘steps’ legs when held upright

- precursor to walking

64
Q

Sucking reflex

A

sucks when object placed in mouth

- permits feeding

65
Q

Withdrawal reflex

A

withdraws foot when pricked with pin

- protection from pain

66
Q

When can babies usually sit with support?

A

4 months

67
Q

When can babies usually sit unassisted?

A

7 months

68
Q

When can babies usually stand while holding on?

A

9 months

69
Q

When can babies usually pull to stand?

A

12 months

70
Q

When can babies usually climb stairs?

A

13 months

71
Q

When can babies usually stand alone briefly and walk with assistance?

A

14 months

72
Q

When can babies usually walk alone?

A

15 months

73
Q

What things affect motor development?

A
  • muscle development
  • neural development
  • massage
  • medical complications, surgery
  • seasons in moderate climates (not extreme - Edmonton)
74
Q

dynamic systems theory

A

motor development involves many distinct skills, organized and reorganized over time to meet task-specific demands

75
Q

What elements need to be in place for locomotion?

A
  • practice
  • visual system - balance, judging surfaces suitable for walking
  • large-muscle groups
  • inner-ear mechanism for balance
  • differentiation/integration
  • knowing when to inhibit non-useful skills
76
Q

what is “catching up”

A

in preterm infants, a period of growth after birth in which they put on weight rapidly

77
Q

differentiation

A

mastery of component skills

78
Q

integration

A

combining component skills in proper sequence into a coherent, working whole.

79
Q

when does thumb use typically start?

A

7-8 months

80
Q

when can babies coordinate the motion of their hands?

A

5-6 months

81
Q

how does handedness develop

A

9 mo: no preference
13 mo: preference for one over the other
K: handedness established

82
Q

auditory threshold

A

the quietest sound a person can hear

  • for babies it’s higher
  • hear best in the range of human voice
83
Q

auditory (sound) localization

A

ability to detect where a sound is coming from

- newborns have this

84
Q

when is full auditory capacity reached?

A

about 30 months

85
Q

visual acuity

A

the smallest pattern that can be dependably distinguished

86
Q

how is visual acuity measured

A

grey square and striped square, make stripes smaller and see when baby stares equally at both.
- by 1, baby VA same as adult

87
Q

describe newborn colour perception

A

do perceive colour, but respond to higher saturation - less mature and efficient optical systems for colour detection
- by 3-4 months, cones and neural circuits have developed to be the same as adults

88
Q

size constancy

A

the knowledge that an object’s actual size remains the same, despite changes in the size of its retinal image
- by 4-5 months

89
Q

response to the visual cliff depth perception experiment

A

surface under glass plate drops off
1.5 mo. think it’s interesting (heart rate slows)
7 mo. scared (heart rate increases)

90
Q

retinal disparity

A

differences in position on the right and left retinas for objects perceived to be nearby
- in use by 4-6 months

91
Q

texture gradient

A

cues for depth perception arising from closer objects having finer details, farther ones coarser

92
Q

interposition

A

near objects partially obscure far objects

93
Q

edges

A

lines that mark the boundaries of objects

- 3-mo. infants use edges to identify objects

94
Q

two visual systems

A
  1. perception of objects
  2. moving objects
    infants and adults both have these
95
Q

why do babies like to look at faces

A
  • stimuli that move (eyes, mouth)
  • dark/light contrast (eyes, lips, teeth)
    by 2-3 months, can recognize familiar faces - basis for social relationships
96
Q

how many neurons in neonate brain

A

100-200 billion

97
Q

3 points about infant/toddler brain dev’t

A
  • overall number of neurons decreases
  • number of synaptic connections increases
  • synaptic pruning begins around age 3
98
Q

first tooth

A

5-9 mo

99
Q

Benefits of breast feeding for the baby:

A
  • disease protection
  • cognitive development
  • reduction in obesity
  • better health in childhood and adulthood
100
Q

Benefits of breast feeding for the mother:

A
  • oxytocin reduces bleeding in uterus
  • helps mother return to pre-baby weight
  • strengthens bones
  • reduces risk of ovarian and breast cancer
  • suppresses ovulation
101
Q

toilet training average at 18 mo

A

25%

102
Q

toilet training average at 36 mo

A

60%

103
Q

sleeping: By 3-4 months of age, infants

A
  • can sleep 6-7 hours in a row

* spend 40% of sleep in REM stage

104
Q

Risk factors for SIDS:

A
  • sleeping on the stomach (back sleeping is safer)
  • low birth weight or APGAR scores
  • mother smokes during pregnancy or infancy
  • soft bedding
  • sleeping in a room that is too hot
  • two or more layers of clothing while sleeping
105
Q

Erikson’s first two stages

A
  1. Infancy: trust/mistrust - attachment

2. Toddlerhood: autonomy/shame-doubt - sense of self

106
Q

Emotion

A
  • a subjective thought or experience
  • an accompanying pattern of neural activity and
    physiological arousal
  • an observable behavioural expression
107
Q

4 Characteristics of basic emotions:

A
  • fast and automatic
  • develop early in life
  • universal among humans
  • shared with other mammals
108
Q

3-4 distinct kinds of crying:

A

basic cry - starts softly and gradually becomes more intense; usually occurs when a baby is hungry or tired
mad cry - a more intense version of the basic cry (cry expels large volume of air)
pain cry - begins with a sudden, long burst followed by a long pause and gasping
fussing - soft volume, unsteady whimper, when mildly
distressed

109
Q

Shaken Baby Syndrome

A

brain injury that occurs when a baby is shaken (by arms, legs, chest or shoulder) or when the baby is slammed or thrown against an object

110
Q

PURPLE crying (what do the letters stand for?)

A 
Peak of crying (2 mo)
Unexpected
Resists Soothing
Pain-like face
Long-lasting
Evening
111
Q

display rules

A

unwritten expectations (norms) we have about when it is appropriate to show certain emotions

112
Q

emotion regulation

A 
strategies people use to influence their own emotional expressiveness. 
in infancy:
- look away from the stimulus
- move closer to a caregiver
- mainly rely on others
113
Q

Emotion Regulation - Toddlerhood

A
  • development of behavioural strategies
  • development of complex emotions
  • external requirements
  • use of language
114
Q

emotional contagion

A

in infants, crying in response to hearing another infant cry, evident beginning at about 2 months

115
Q

Still face paradigm

A
  • infants expect others to show emotion and become distressed when they do not
  • shows that even young infants experience emotions through interactions with others
116
Q

social referencing

A

infants in an unfamiliar or ambiguous environment look at their caregivers, as if searching for cues to help them interpret the situation

117
Q

Temperament - Rothbart (2007) (3 elements)

A

surgency/extroversion
negative affect
effortful control

118
Q

surgency/extroversion

A

the extent to which a child is generally happy, active, vocal, and seeks interesting stimulation

119
Q

negative affect -

A

the extent to which a child is angry, fearful, frustrated, shy, and not easily soothed

120
Q

effortful control -

A

the extent to which a child can focus attention, is not readily distracted, and can inhibit responses

121
Q

self-awareness

A

the ability to recognize one’s individuality

  • toddlers start to use personal pronouns to describe themselves
  • refer to things that belong to them

Childhood Dev't (15 decks)

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