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BSc. Forensic Science - LJMU. > 4103FSBMOL - Lecture 6 - Basic Fundamentals of Chemistry. > Flashcards

4103FSBMOL - Lecture 6 - Basic Fundamentals of Chemistry. Flashcards

1
Q

What are atoms made up of?

A

Electrons in Shells surrounding a dense Positively charged Nucleus made up of Protons and Neutrons.

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2
Q

What are the different types of orbitals?

A

s, p, d and f orbitals.

These sit in the shells around the nucleus.

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3
Q

Which orbital(s) is/are contained in the 1st shell?

A

Just the 1s orbital.

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4
Q

Which orbital(s) is/are contained in the 2nd shell?

A

The 2s and 2p orbitals.

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5
Q

Which orbital(s) is/are contained in the 3rd shell?

A

The 3s, 3p and 3d orbitals.

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6
Q

What is the maximum number of electrons in the 1st shell?

A

2.

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7
Q

What is the maximum number of electrons in the 2nd shell?

A

8.

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8
Q

What is the maximum number of electrons in the 3rd shell?

A

18.

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9
Q

How many electrons can an s-orbital hold?

A

2 electrons of opposite spin.

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10
Q

How many electrons can a p-orbital hold?

A

6 electrons (3 of one spin, 3 of the opposite spin).

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11
Q

How many electrons can a d-orbital hold?

A

10 electrons (5 of one spin, 5 of the opposite spin).

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12
Q

How many electrons can a f-orbital hold?

A

14 electrons (7 of one spin, 7 of the opposite spin).

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13
Q

What shape and size is a 1s orbital?

A

It is spherical in shape and looks like a diffused cloud. It is quite small (smaller than a 2s orbital).

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14
Q

What shape and size is a 2s orbital?

A

It is spherical in shape and is bigger than the 1s orbital. It also has a node.

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15
Q

What is the ‘node’ in the 2s orbital?

A

A spherical region where the wave function changes on a graph (goes from a negative to positive gradient for example).

(In general, the ‘n’s orbital has (‘n’ - 1) radial nodes).

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16
Q

What shape is a 2p orbital?

A

It is composed of 3 different orientations. They are dumbbell shaped and lie along the x, y and z axis’. Each half of the dumbbell has 1 electron.

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17
Q

What is the name for the Principle on how to assign electrons to orbitals?

A

Aufbau Principle.

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18
Q

What are the 3 rules in the Aufbau Principle?

A
  1. Lower energy orbitals are filled before higher energy orbitals (1s will be filled before 2s and both of them before 2p).
  2. Pauli Exclusion Principle - Orbital containing a max of 2 electrons with opposite spin.
  3. Hund’s Rule - How p-orbitals are filled (filled with an electron of one spin - all 3 spaces with the same spin and then we fill with the opposite spin.
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19
Q

What does the filling of orbitals and the Electronic Configuration determine?

A

The position of where elements are located on the periodic table.

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20
Q

What is the simplest molecule that contains an Ionic Bond?

A

Sodium Chloride (NaCl).

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21
Q

What is the electronic configuration of a Sodium Atom and a Sodium Ion?

(Na - Atomic Number = 11).

A
  • Na (atom) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1.
  • Na+ (ion) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6.
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22
Q

What is the electronic configuration of a Chlorine Atom and a Chlorine Ion?

(Cl - Atomic Number = 17).

A
  • Cl (atom) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5.
  • Cl- (ion) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6.
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23
Q

How does the Sodium Atom become a positively charged ion?

A

The sodium atom is unstable as it doesn’t have 8 electrons in its outer shell. This means sodium needs to lose the electron in the 3s orbital. By losing this electron it becomes a positively charged ion.

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24
Q

How does the Chlorine Atom become a negatively charged ion?

A

Chlorine doesn’t have eight electrons in its outer shell, so chlorine will accept the electron from the sodium and therefore it will gain 8 electrons in its outer shell and will have noble gas configuration and stability. Because of this, the chlorine atom is now negatively charged.

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25
Q

When stating an Electronic Configuration, what is important?

A

You have to use Superscript for the electrons.

(e.g. 1s2, 2s2…)

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26
Q

Using a definition of Ionic Bonding, how does Ionic Bonding work in NaCl?

A

The Electrostatic Forces of Attraction (Interaction) between the positive charge on the sodium and the negative charge on the chlorine produces an ionic bond.

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27
Q

What type of bonding happens between 2 non-metals?

A

Covalent Bonding.

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28
Q

What are the different types of bonds which can form in covalent bonds?

A
  • Polar.
  • Non-Polar.
  • Dative.
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29
Q

What is the Definition of a Covalent Bond?

A

A chemical bond in which two atoms (non-metals) share one or more pairs of electrons to produce molecules.

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30
Q

What do atoms in a Covalent Bond need to be stable?

A

They need a noble gas configuration (8 electrons within their outer shell or 2 electrons for Hydrogen).

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31
Q

What is the name of the Structures to predict what covalent structures look like?

A

Lewis Structure/ Electron Dot Structure.

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32
Q

Explain a Non-Polar Covalent Bond?

A

They have a Symmetrical electron distribution. This is where electrons are shared equally.

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33
Q

Give an example of a Non-Polar Covalent Bond?

A

A Carbon-Carbon bond.

(electrons are shared equally because of the same atom).

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34
Q

Explain a Polar Covalent Bond?

A

They have an Asymmetrical electron distribution. This is where electrons are not shared equally.

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35
Q

Give an example of a Polar Covalent Bond?

A

Hydrogen-Fluorine bonds. Fluorine is a highly electronegative atom, and all the electrons will be surrounding that atom and that will have a permanent negative charge/ dipole. The hydrogen will be deficient of electrons and will have a permanent positive charge/ dipole.

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36
Q

What can we use to determine which atoms can attract other atoms?

A

Electronegativity (EN) Values.

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37
Q

What is the Trend in Electronegativity Values?

A

The EN Values increase the further right you go and the further up you go on the periodic table.

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38
Q

Explain the Electronegativity Values in Groups 1 and 2?

A

The Metals (Groups 1 and 2) have very low EN values in order to lose electrons (they need to give away electrons to be able to become stable).

They decrease as you go down the group.

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39
Q

Explain the Electronegativity Values in the Halogens?

A

The Halogens (Group 7) has very high EN values to accept/ gain electrons to become stable.

They decrease as you go down the group.

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40
Q

What is the most Electronegative Element and what is its EN value?

A

Fluorine - 4.0.

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41
Q

What are the Electronegativity Rules?

A
  1. Non-Polar Covalent Bonds form between atoms of which have similar electronegativities (very similar EN values). e.g. C-C En value = 2.5.
  2. Polar Covalent bonds form between atoms whose electronegativities differ by 0.3-2.0 arbitrary units. e.g. HF - H = 2.1 and F = 4.0. They differ by 1.9 which sits within the region.
  3. Ionic Bonds form between atoms whose electronegativities differ by more than 2 arbitrary units. e.g. NaCl - Na = 0.9 and Cl = 3.0. They differ by 2.1.
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42
Q

Practice Question:

What type of bond will occur between Potassium (K) and Fluoride (F)?

(EN values are 0.8 and 4.0 respectively).

  1. Ionic Bond.
  2. Polar Covalent Bond.
  3. Non-Polar Covalent Bond.
A
  1. Ionic Bond.
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43
Q

Practice Question:

What type of bond will occur in the oxygen molecule (O2)?

(EN value of oxygen is 3.5).

  1. Ionic Bond.
  2. Polar Covalent Bond.
  3. Non-Polar Covalent Bond.
A
  1. Non-Polar Covalent Bond.
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44
Q

Practice Question:

What type of bond will occur between Hydrogen and Nitrogen?

(EN value for Hydrogen= 2.1, EN value for Nitrogen = 3.0).

  1. Ionic Bond.
  2. Polar Covalent Bond.
  3. Non-Polar Covalent Bond.
A
  1. Polar Covalent Bond.
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45
Q

Name as many functional groups as you can.

A

Alkane (C-C), Alkene (C=C), Alkyne (C≡C), Benzene Ring (C6H6), Amine (R-NH2, R2-NH or R3-N), Alcohol (R-OH), Ether (R-O-R), Alkyl Halide (R-F, R-Cl, R-Br, R-I), Thiol (R-SH), Aldehyde (R-CHO), Ketone (R-C(=O)-R), Ester (R-COO), Carboxylic Acid (R-COOH), Amide (R-CONH2, R-CON(H)-R, R-CON-R2), Epoxide (triangle to O), Acid Anhydride (R-C(O)O(O)C-R), Nitrile (R-C≡N), Disulfide (R-S-S-R), Imine (R-C=N-R), Acyl/ Acid Chloride (R-COCl), Nitro (R-NO2), Sulphide (R-S-R).

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46
Q

What is an organic molecule made up of?

A

A carbon based skeleton with functional groups attached to it.

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47
Q

What can Functional Groups determine?

A

The function and reactivity of molecules.

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48
Q

Why are the Alkanes an unreactive series of molecules?

A

Because the functional group in an Alkane is Hydrogen which is attached to the carbon-based skeleton. Hydrogen as a functional groups is very unreactive.

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49
Q

What can you change in an Alkane to change the polarity?

A

Replacing the hydrogens in an Alkane with more highly electronegative elements can be used to change the polarity of a molecule.

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50
Q

What different Types of Reactions can occur with different functional groups?

A
  • Polarity Reactions.
  • Nucleophilic reactions.
  • Electrophilic reactions.
  • Coordinate (Dative) covalent bonding reactions.
  • (Protonation/ Deprotonation Reactions).
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51
Q

Give an example of what can form Dative (Co-ordinate) Covalent Bonds.

A

The Lone Pair(s) of electrons on oxygens and nitrogen’s.

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52
Q

What is the Definition of a Functional Group?

A

A functional group is a group of atoms within a molecule that determine the functionality and reactivity of that molecule. This is dependent upon the functional groups position in a molecule and the proximity in relation to other functional groups within that molecule.

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53
Q

What is the formula for Alkanes?

A

CnH2n+2.

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54
Q

What is the functional group part of an Alkane?

A

Hydrogen.

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55
Q

What is the Suffix for an Alkane?

A

-ane.

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56
Q

Do the Alkanes have the same or different chemical behaviours?

A

Same.

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57
Q

Give examples of the first 10 Alkanes.

A

Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane, Hexane, Heptane, Octane, Nonane, Decane.

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58
Q

What different structures of Alkanes can you have?

A
  • Straight Chain.
  • Branched.
  • Cyclic.
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59
Q

What are the IUPAC Rules for naming Alkanes?

A
  1. Find the longest chain and name it.
  2. Name all groups attached to the chain as alkyl substituents.
  3. Number the carbons on the chain beginning with the end that is closest to a substituent (with the highest priority).
  4. Write the name of the alkane by first arranging all the substituents in alphabetical order (each preceded by the carbon number to which it is attached and a hyphen) and then add the name of the stem. The positions of attachment to the stem should be given collectively before the substituent name and are separated by commas.
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60
Q

If a molecule cotains more than 1 of the same substituent, what do you have to add?

A

Its alkyl should be preceded by the prefix, di, tri, tetra, penta etc.

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61
Q

What is an example of an Alkane with groups attached?

A

CH3C(CH3)HC(CH3)HCH3 –> 2,3-Dimethylbutane.

62
Q

What group is the Alkyl group derived from?

A

Alkanes.

(they are Deprotonated Alkanes).

63
Q

What is the Suffix for an Alkyl?

A

-yl.

64
Q

Give examples of the first 10 Alkyl’s.

A

Methyl, Ethyl, Propyl, Butyl, Pentyl, Hexyl, Heptyl, Octyl, Nonyl, Decyl.

65
Q

What is the name and structure of the Alkyl involving a benzene ring?

A

Phenyl (C6H5).

66
Q

Practice Question:

What is the name of an alkane that has five carbons?

  1. Methane.
  2. Decane.
  3. Butane.
  4. Pentane.
A
  1. Pentane.
67
Q

Practice Question:

What is the name of an Alkyl group that has six carbons in a ring structure?

  1. Ethyl.
  2. Propyl.
  3. Phenyl.
  4. Hexyl.
A
  1. Phenyl.
68
Q

What is another name for the Alkyl Halides functional group?

A

Haloalkanes.

69
Q

What does the Functional Group of a Haloalkane look like?

A

R-X.

(where R is the organic group and X is a halogen).

70
Q

What Prefixes can be used for Haloalkanes?

A

Chloro-, Bromo-, Iodo-, Fluoro- etc.

71
Q

What is an example of a Haloalkane?

A

ICH3 - Iodomethane.

72
Q

What important factors do you need to remember when naming Haloalkanes?

A
  • The halogen must have the lowest possible assignment.
  • It has to be labelled alphabetically (e.g. bromo- before chloro-).
73
Q

What happens when a halogen is added to a molecule?

A

The Polarity changes and therefore makes the molecule more reactive. This means the bonds are easier to break, and will form more products.

74
Q

What is the Suffix for an Alkene?

A

-ene.

75
Q

What does the functional group of an Alkene look like?

A

C=C (Carbon Carbon double bond).

76
Q

When Alkenes react what type of bonds are in the molecules?

A

Single Bonds only.

77
Q

Give examples of the first Alkenes.

A

Ethene, Propene, Butene, Pentene, Hexene, Heptene, Octene, Nonene, Decene.

(Methene isn’t possible!)

78
Q

What extra bit might the common names for Alkenes inlcude?

A

A -yl after the stem (e.g. ethylene).

79
Q

Are Alkenes protonated or de-protonated?

A

De-protonated just liek the Alkanes.

80
Q

What are the IUPAC Rules for naming Alkenes?

A
  1. Find the longest chain that includes the double bond.
  2. Number the chain starting at the end closest to the double bond.
  3. All substituents added to the alkene as prefixes.
  4. Work out whether there is any Isomerism and name accordingly.
  5. Substituents containing a double bond have a common name of alkenyl. e.g. CH2=CH- is Ethenyl (Vinyl) and CH2=CH-CH2- is 2-Propenyl (Allyl).
81
Q

What are the 2 types of Isomer relating to the location of the double bond of Alkenes?

A

Terminal and Internal Isomer.

82
Q

Exaplain Internal and Terminal Isomers for Alkenes and give examples of each.

A
  • Terminal isomer - with C=C bond at one end (asymmetrical) - e.g. CH2=CHCH2CH3 which is But-1-ene.
  • Internal isomer with the C=C bond in the middle (symmetrical) - CH3CH=CHCH3 which is But-2-ene.
83
Q

What type of Isomerism do you get in 1,4-disubstituted alkenes?

A

Cis/ Trans Isomerism.

84
Q

Explain the difference between Cis and Trans Isomerism?

A
  • Cis = highest priority groups are on the same side.
  • Trans = highest priority groups are on the opposite sides.
85
Q

What is the other type of Isomerism if you can’t assign Cis/ Trans?

A

E/Z Isomerism.

86
Q

Explain the difference between E and Z Isomerism?

A
  • E = highest priority groups are on opposite sides.
  • Z = highest priority groups are on the same side.

(ZeeZameZide).

87
Q

Which is the best type of Isomerism to use?

A

E/Z Isomerism.

88
Q

When is Cis/Trans Isomerism used?

A

Cis/Trans nomenclature is effective only when the alkene has two different groups on each carbon atom of the double bond and each carbon has one of the same group.

89
Q

When is E/Z Isomerism used?

A

You can always use the E/Z system. It is more reliable and particularly suited to tri- or tetrasubstituted alkenes, especially when the substituents are not alkyl groups. It is used for when there are more than two different substituents on a double bond.

90
Q

Which has higher priority: the double bond or the hydroxyl group?

Give an example to prove this.

A

Hydroxyl group.

(e.g. CH2=CHCH2OH is 2-propen-1-ol).

91
Q

What is the Formula you use for an Alkyne?

A

CnH2n-2.

92
Q

What does the functional group of an Alkyne look like?

A

C≡C (Carbon carbon triple bond).

93
Q

When the Triple Bond in an Alkyne attacks reagents, what type of bonds are in the molecule(s)?

A

Single Bonds only.

94
Q

What is the Suffix for an Alkyne?

A

-yne.

95
Q

What is the substituent suffix after an Alkyne has been deprotonated?

A

-ynl.

96
Q

Give examples of the first Alkynes.

A

Ethyne, Propyne, Butyne, Pentyne, Hexyne, Heptyne, Octyne, Nonyne, Decyne.

97
Q

Some Alkynes have common names instead of their IUPAC name. What is the common name for Ethyne, Propyne and Butyne?

(HINT: They are very similar).

A
  • Ethyne = Acetylene.
  • Propyne = Methylacetylene.
  • Butyne = Dimethylacetylene.
98
Q

What functional groups does the Alkyne group take priority over?

A

Alkanes and Alkenes.

99
Q

Give an example to show how the hydroxyl group takes priority over an Alkyne.

A

H3CC(OH)CH2CH2C≡CH is 5-hexyn-2-ol.

100
Q

What is the Structure of Benzene?

A

C6H6 (a cyclic structure).

101
Q

What is the other name for the sturture of Benzene?

A

A Resonance Structure.

102
Q

Why can Benzene be called a Resonance Structure?

A

Because it exists in 2 different versions, both with alternating single and double bonds. The double bonds have π electrons which can move. Benzene constantly switches between these 2 structures and so it ‘resonates’ because the double bonds don’t remain in one place.

103
Q

What is an example of how Benzene is used in the industry?

A

It is used in Flavourings and Fragrences.

104
Q

What 2 different types of substituted Benzene structures are there?

A

Mono-substituted and Di-substituted.

105
Q

Give an example of a Mono-substituted Benzene structure.

(HINT: an explosive).

A

C6H5NO2 - Nitrobenzene (Explosive).

106
Q

What are the different types of Di-substituted Benzene structures?

A

Ortho, Meta and Para (OMP).

107
Q

Which carbons are substituted for a Para-substituted benzene structure?

A

Carbons 1 and 4.

108
Q

Which carbons are substituted for a Meta-substituted benzene structure?

A

Carbons 1 and 3.

109
Q

Which carbons are substituted for a Ortho-substituted benzene structure?

A

Carbons 1 and 2.

110
Q

What do we have to remember about the Prefix (ortho, meta and para)?

Give an example.

A

It has to be in italics! (and all in lowercase).

(e.g. para-dibromobenzene).

111
Q

What is R-OH the functional group of?

A

Alcohols (Hydroxyl group).

112
Q

What is the Suffix for an Alcohol?

A

-ol.

113
Q

Explain the difference between Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Alcohols?

A
  • Primary - contains 1 R group.
  • Secondary - contains 2 R groups.
  • Tertiary - contains 3 R groups. (also need to state tert- as a prefix).
114
Q

Give examples of the first 10 Alcohols.

A

Methanol, Ethanol, Propanol, Butanol, Pentanol, Hexanol, Heptanol, Octanol, Nonanol, Decanol.

115
Q

What is the simplest secondary alcohol structure?

A

Isopropyl alcohol - CH3CH(OH)CH3.

The Isopropyl structure which is important! is - (CH3)2CH-R.

116
Q

What is the simplest tertiary alcohol structure?

A

tert-Butylalcohol - (CH3)3COH.

117
Q

Some alcohols have common names. Give some examples.

A
  • 1,2-ethanediol is Ethylene Glycol (Antifreeze).
  • C6H5OH is Phenol.
  • 1,2,3-propanetriol is Glycerol/Glycerine (Very Polar compound).
118
Q

Practice Question:

When the two substituents in an alkene are on the same side of the double bond, what isomer is this?

  1. Cis.
  2. Trans.
A
  1. Cis.
119
Q

Practice Question:

The prefix of a 1,4 Di-substituted Benzene is?

  1. Ortho.
  2. Meta.
  3. Para.
A
  1. Para.
120
Q

Practice Question:

When naming alkynes which functional group has priority over the triple bond?

  1. Hydroxyl (OH).
  2. Alkane.
  3. Alkenes.
A
  1. Hydroxyl (OH).
121
Q

What is the general name of a functional group that contains a C=O?

A

Carbonyl Group (Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxyllic Acids).

122
Q

What functional group has the structure: R-CHO?

A

Aldehydes.

123
Q

What is the Suffix for an Aldehyde?

A

-al.

124
Q

Which one has higher priority: Alcohols or Aldehydes?

A

Aldehydes (carbonyl groups).

125
Q

Why are Aldehydes and the carbonyl group very reactive?

A

Because the oxygen is highly electronegative due to all the electrons surrounding the oxygen creating a permanent negative dipole. This means the carbon will be deficient. It allows Nucleophiles (electron rich) to attack the carbon (that is now deficient) attached to the oxygen, and electrophiles (electron lacking) to attack the oxygen.

126
Q

What type(s) of reactions can Aldehyes do?

A
  • Polarity Reactions.
  • Nucelophilic Reactions.
  • Electrophilic Reactions.
127
Q

What does the Oxygen in the Aldehyde have which means it can undergo a special type of covalent bonding?

A

The Oxygen has a lone pair of electrons which allows it to undergo co-ordinate (dative) covalent bonding.

128
Q

What is the Suffix for a Cyclic Aldehyde?

Give an example.

A

-carboxaldehyde.

(e.g. Cyclohexanecarboxaldehyde).

129
Q

What are some examples of Aldehydes with common names?

A
  • Methanal (Formaldehyde).
  • Ethanal (Acetaldehyde).
130
Q

What does a Ketone functional group look like?

A

R-C(O)-R

(carbon double bond to the oxygen, C=O).

131
Q

What is the Suffix for a Ketone?

A

-one.

132
Q

What type(s) of reactions can Ketones do?

A
  • Polarity.
  • Nucelophilic.
  • Electrophilic.
  • Coordinate (Dative) Covalent Bonding.
133
Q

What is the name of the simplest Ketone?

What is its common name?

A

Propanone (Acetone).

134
Q

What are the different types of Amine and what do their structures look like?

Which is the most basic (base) structure?

A
  • Primary (1°) - R-NH2.
  • Secondary (2°) - R2NH.
  • Tertairy (3°) - R3N (most basic structure).
135
Q

What is the Suffix for an Amine?

A

-amine.

136
Q

What special prefix must you remember with Amines and Amides ONLY?

A

When replacing hydrogen groups you need the prefix of N-.

(e.g. for a tertairy amine the prefix is N,N-).

137
Q

What is the other prefix you can use to alternatively name an Amine?

A

Amino-.

138
Q

What is an example of a Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Amine?

A
  • Primary - CH3NH2 - Methanamine.
  • Secondary - CH3NHCH2CH3 is N-methylethanamine.
  • Tertiary - (CH3)2NCH2CH2CH3 is N,N-Dimethylaminopropane.
139
Q

What is an example of an Amine as a substituent?

A

CH3CH2NH2 is Aminoethane.

140
Q

What is the last way you can name an Amine?

Give an example.

A

As you see it.

e.g. CH3NH2 is Methylamine.

141
Q

What is an Amide derived from?

A

A Carboxyllic Acid.

142
Q

What is the difference between an Amine and an Amide?

A

An Amide has a Carbonyl group (C=O) and an Amine doesn’t.

143
Q

Does an Amine or Amide have higher priority?

A

Amide - because of the carbonyl (C=O) group.

144
Q

What type of reactions are Amides involved in?

A
  • Polarity Reactions.
  • Nucelophilic Reactions.
  • Electrophilic Reactions.
  • Coordinate (Dative) Covalent Bonding Reactions.
145
Q

Why can an Amide react in a coordinate covalent bonding reaction?

A

Because of the lone pair of electrons on the Nitrogen and Oxygen atoms.

146
Q

What type of compound are Amides? Which structure is the strongest?

A

They are very strong bases. The tertiary amide is the strongest.

147
Q

What is the Suffix for an Amide?

A

-amide.

148
Q

What type of bond is the functional group part of an Amide?

A

N-C=O

149
Q

What is the simplest primary Amide? What is its common name?

A

Methanamide (Formamide).

150
Q

What is the simplest secondary Amide?

A

BSc. Forensic Science - LJMU. (21 decks)

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