4103FSBMOL - Lecture 6 - Basic Fundamentals of Chemistry. Flashcards
1
Q
What are atoms made up of?
A
Electrons in Shells surrounding a dense Positively charged Nucleus made up of Protons and Neutrons.
2
Q
What are the different types of orbitals?
A
s, p, d and f orbitals.
These sit in the shells around the nucleus.
3
Q
Which orbital(s) is/are contained in the 1st shell?
A
Just the 1s orbital.
4
Q
Which orbital(s) is/are contained in the 2nd shell?
A
The 2s and 2p orbitals.
5
Q
Which orbital(s) is/are contained in the 3rd shell?
A
The 3s, 3p and 3d orbitals.
6
Q
What is the maximum number of electrons in the 1st shell?
A
2.
7
Q
What is the maximum number of electrons in the 2nd shell?
A
8.
8
Q
What is the maximum number of electrons in the 3rd shell?
A
18.
9
Q
How many electrons can an s-orbital hold?
A
2 electrons of opposite spin.
10
Q
How many electrons can a p-orbital hold?
A
6 electrons (3 of one spin, 3 of the opposite spin).
11
Q
How many electrons can a d-orbital hold?
A
10 electrons (5 of one spin, 5 of the opposite spin).
12
Q
How many electrons can a f-orbital hold?
A
14 electrons (7 of one spin, 7 of the opposite spin).
13
Q
What shape and size is a 1s orbital?
A
It is spherical in shape and looks like a diffused cloud. It is quite small (smaller than a 2s orbital).
14
Q
What shape and size is a 2s orbital?
A
It is spherical in shape and is bigger than the 1s orbital. It also has a node.
15
Q
What is the ‘node’ in the 2s orbital?
A
A spherical region where the wave function changes on a graph (goes from a negative to positive gradient for example).
(In general, the ‘n’s orbital has (‘n’ - 1) radial nodes).
16
Q
What shape is a 2p orbital?
A
It is composed of 3 different orientations. They are dumbbell shaped and lie along the x, y and z axis’. Each half of the dumbbell has 1 electron.
17
Q
What is the name for the Principle on how to assign electrons to orbitals?
A
Aufbau Principle.
18
Q
What are the 3 rules in the Aufbau Principle?
A
- Lower energy orbitals are filled before higher energy orbitals (1s will be filled before 2s and both of them before 2p).
- Pauli Exclusion Principle - Orbital containing a max of 2 electrons with opposite spin.
- Hund’s Rule - How p-orbitals are filled (filled with an electron of one spin - all 3 spaces with the same spin and then we fill with the opposite spin.
19
Q
What does the filling of orbitals and the Electronic Configuration determine?
A
The position of where elements are located on the periodic table.
20
Q
What is the simplest molecule that contains an Ionic Bond?
A
Sodium Chloride (NaCl).
21
Q
What is the electronic configuration of a Sodium Atom and a Sodium Ion?
(Na - Atomic Number = 11).
A
- Na (atom) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1.
- Na+ (ion) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6.
22
Q
What is the electronic configuration of a Chlorine Atom and a Chlorine Ion?
(Cl - Atomic Number = 17).
A
- Cl (atom) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5.
- Cl- (ion) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6.
23
Q
How does the Sodium Atom become a positively charged ion?
A
The sodium atom is unstable as it doesn’t have 8 electrons in its outer shell. This means sodium needs to lose the electron in the 3s orbital. By losing this electron it becomes a positively charged ion.
24
Q
How does the Chlorine Atom become a negatively charged ion?
A
Chlorine doesn’t have eight electrons in its outer shell, so chlorine will accept the electron from the sodium and therefore it will gain 8 electrons in its outer shell and will have noble gas configuration and stability. Because of this, the chlorine atom is now negatively charged.
25
When stating an Electronic Configuration, what is important?
You have to use **Superscript** for the electrons.
| (e.g. 1s**2**, 2s**2**...)
26
*Using a definition of Ionic Bonding*, how does Ionic Bonding work in NaCl?
The *Electrostatic Forces of Attraction (Interaction)* between the positive charge on the sodium and the negative charge on the chlorine produces an ionic bond.
27
What *type of bonding* happens between **2 non-metals**?
**Covalent** Bonding.
28
What are the different types of bonds which can form in covalent bonds?
* Polar.
* Non-Polar.
* Dative.
29
What is the **Definition** of a *Covalent Bond?*
A chemical bond in which **two atoms** (non-metals) **share one or more pairs of electrons** to produce molecules.
30
What do atoms in a Covalent Bond need to be stable?
They need a **noble gas configuration** (*8 electrons within their outer shell* or 2 electrons for Hydrogen).
31
What is the name of the Structures to predict what covalent structures look like?
Lewis Structure/ Electron Dot Structure.
32
Explain a ***Non-Polar* Covalent Bond?**
They have a ***Symmetrical* electron distribution**. This is where electrons are *shared equally.*
33
Give an **example** of a *Non-Polar Covalent Bond?*
A **Carbon-Carbon** bond.
| (electrons are *shared equally* because of the *same atom*).
34
Explain a ***Polar* Covalent Bond?**
They have an ***Asymmetrical* electron distribution.** This is where electrons are *not shared equally.*
35
Give an **example** of a *Polar Covalent Bond?*
**Hydrogen-Fluorine bonds.** *Fluorine is a highly electronegative atom*, and all the electrons will be surrounding that atom and that will have a **permanent *negative* charge/ dipole.** The *hydrogen* will be *deficient* of electrons and will have a **permanent *positive* charge/ dipole.**
36
What can we use to determine which atoms can attract other atoms?
Electronegativity (EN) Values.
37
What is the **Trend** in *Electronegativity Values?*
The EN Values **increase** the **further right** you go and the **further up** you go on the periodic table.
38
Explain the *Electronegativity Values* in **Groups 1 and 2**?
The Metals (Groups 1 and 2) have **very low EN values** in order to *lose electrons* (they need to *give away electrons* to be able **to become stable**).
| They **decrease** as you go **down** the group.
39
Explain the *Electronegativity Values* in the **Halogens**?
The Halogens (Group 7) has **very high EN values** to *accept/ gain electrons* **to become stable.**
| They **decrease** as you go **down** the group.
40
What is the most Electronegative Element and what is its EN value?
Fluorine - 4.0.
41
What are the **Electronegativity Rules**?
1. ***Non-Polar* Covalent Bonds** form between atoms of which have *similar electronegativities* (**very similar EN values**). e.g. C-C En value = 2.5.
2. ***Polar* Covalent bonds** form between atoms whose *electronegativities differ by **0.3-2.0 arbitrary units.*** e.g. HF - H = 2.1 and F = 4.0. They differ by 1.9 which sits within the region.
3. **Ionic Bonds** form between atoms whose *electronegativities differ by **more than 2 arbitrary units.*** e.g. NaCl - Na = 0.9 and Cl = 3.0. They differ by 2.1.
42
# **_Practice Question:_**
What *type of bond* will occur between Potassium (K) and Fluoride (F)?
| (EN values are 0.8 and 4.0 respectively).
## Footnote
1. Ionic Bond.
2. Polar Covalent Bond.
3. Non-Polar Covalent Bond.
1. Ionic Bond.
43
# **_Practice Question:_**
What *type of bond* will occur in the oxygen molecule (O2)?
| (EN value of oxygen is 3.5).
## Footnote
1. Ionic Bond.
2. Polar Covalent Bond.
3. Non-Polar Covalent Bond.
3. Non-Polar Covalent Bond.
44
# **_Practice Question:_**
What *type of bond* will occur between Hydrogen and Nitrogen?
| (EN value for Hydrogen= 2.1, EN value for Nitrogen = 3.0).
## Footnote
1. Ionic Bond.
2. Polar Covalent Bond.
3. Non-Polar Covalent Bond.
2. Polar Covalent Bond.
45
Name as many **functional groups** as you can.
**Alkane** (C-C), **Alkene** (C=C), **Alkyne** (C≡C), **Benzene Ring** (C6H6), **Amine** (R-NH2, R2-NH or R3-N), **Alcohol** (R-OH), **Ether** (R-O-R), **Alkyl Halide** (R-F, R-Cl, R-Br, R-I), **Thiol** (R-SH), **Aldehyde** (R-CHO), **Ketone** (R-C(=O)-R), **Ester** (R-COO), **Carboxylic Acid** (R-COOH), **Amide** (R-CONH2, R-CON(H)-R, R-CON-R2), **Epoxide** (triangle to O), **Acid Anhydride** (R-C(O)O(O)C-R), **Nitrile** (R-C≡N), **Disulfide** (R-S-S-R), **Imine** (R-C=N-R), **Acyl/ Acid Chloride** (R-COCl), **Nitro** (R-NO2), **Sulphide** (R-S-R).
46
What is an *organic molecule* made up of?
A carbon based skeleton with functional groups attached to it.
47
What can Functional Groups determine?
The function and reactivity of molecules.
48
Why are the Alkanes an *unreactive series* of molecules?
Because the functional group in an Alkane is *Hydrogen* which is attached to the carbon-based skeleton. Hydrogen as a functional groups is *very unreactive.*
49
What can you change in an Alkane to change the polarity?
Replacing the hydrogens in an Alkane with **more highly electronegative elements** can be used to change the polarity of a molecule.
50
What different **Types of Reactions** can occur with *different functional groups?*
* **Polarity** Reactions.
* **Nucleophilic** reactions.
* **Electrophilic** reactions.
* **Coordinate (Dative)** covalent bonding reactions.
* (Protonation/ Deprotonation Reactions).
51
Give an example of what can form Dative (Co-ordinate) Covalent Bonds.
The *Lone Pair(s) of electrons* on oxygens and nitrogen's.
52
What is the **Definition** of a *Functional Group?*
A functional group is a **group of atoms** within a molecule that **determine the functionality and reactivity** of that molecule. This is dependent upon the functional groups *position in a molecule* and the *proximity in relation to other functional groups* within that molecule.
53
What is the **formula** for *Alkanes?*
CnH2n**+2**.
54
What is the *functional group* part of an *Alkane?*
Hydrogen.
55
What is the **Suffix** for an *Alkane?*
-ane.
56
Do the Alkanes have the same or different chemical behaviours?
Same.
57
Give **examples** of the *first 10 Alkanes.*
*Meth*ane, *Eth*ane, *Prop*ane, *But*ane, *Pent*ane, *Hex*ane, *Hept*ane, *Oct*ane, *Non*ane, *Dec*ane.
58
What **different structures** of *Alkanes* can you have?
* Straight Chain.
* Branched.
* Cyclic.
59
What are the **IUPAC Rules** for *naming Alkanes?*
1. **Find the longest chain** and name it.
2. **Name all groups attached** to the chain as alkyl substituents.
3. **Number the carbons** on the chain beginning with the end that is closest to a substituent (with the *highest priority*).
4. **Write the name of the alkane** by first arranging all the substituents in *alphabetical order* (each preceded by the carbon number to which it is attached and a hyphen) and then *add the name of the stem.* The positions of attachment to the stem should be given collectively before the substituent name and are *separated by commas.*
60
If a molecule cotains more than 1 of the same substituent, what do you have to add?
Its alkyl should be preceded by the prefix, *di, tri, tetra, penta etc.*
61
What is an **example** of an *Alkane with groups attached?*
CH3C(CH3)HC(CH3)HCH3 --> 2,3-Dimethylbutane.
62
What group is the Alkyl group *derived from?*
Alkanes.
| (they are Deprotonated Alkanes).
63
What is the **Suffix** for an *Alkyl?*
-yl.
64
Give **examples** of the *first 10 Alkyl's.*
Methyl, Ethyl, Propyl, Butyl, Pentyl, Hexyl, Heptyl, Octyl, Nonyl, Decyl.
65
What is the *name and structure* of the Alkyl involving a benzene ring?
Phenyl (C6H5).
66
# **_Practice Question:_**
What is the name of an *alkane* that has *five carbons?*
## Footnote
1. Methane.
2. Decane.
3. Butane.
4. Pentane.
4. Pentane.
67
# **_Practice Question:_**
What is the name of an *Alkyl group* that has *six carbons* in a *ring structure?*
## Footnote
1. Ethyl.
2. Propyl.
3. Phenyl.
4. Hexyl.
3. Phenyl.
68
What is *another name* for the Alkyl Halides functional group?
Haloalkanes.
69
What does the Functional Group of a *Haloalkane look like?*
R-X.
| (where R is the organic group and X is a halogen).
70
What **Prefixes** can be used for *Haloalkanes?*
Chloro-, Bromo-, Iodo-, Fluoro- etc.
71
What is an **example** of a *Haloalkane?*
ICH3 - Iodomethane.
72
What *important factors* do you need to remember when *naming Haloalkanes?*
* The *halogen* must have the **lowest possible assignment.**
* It has to be **labelled alphabetically** (e.g. bromo- before chloro-).
73
What happens when a *halogen* is added to a molecule?
The **Polarity changes** and therefore makes the *molecule more reactive.* This means the bonds are easier to break, and will *form more products.*
74
What is the **Suffix** for an *Alkene?*
-ene.
75
What does the functional group of an Alkene look like?
**C=C** (Carbon Carbon double bond).
76
When Alkenes react what type of bonds are in the molecules?
Single Bonds only.
77
Give **examples** of the *first Alkenes.*
Ethene, Propene, Butene, Pentene, Hexene, Heptene, Octene, Nonene, Decene.
| (Methene isn't possible!)
78
What extra bit might the common names for Alkenes inlcude?
A **-yl** after the stem (e.g. ethylene).
79
Are Alkenes protonated or de-protonated?
**De-protonated** just liek the Alkanes.
80
What are the **IUPAC Rules** for *naming Alkenes?*
1. **Find the longest chain** that *includes the double bond.*
2. **Number the chain** starting at the *end closest to the double bond.*
3. All **substituents** added to the alkene as **prefixes.**
4. Work out whether there is any **Isomerism and name accordingly.**
5. **Substituents containing a double bond** have a common name of **alkenyl**. *e.g. CH2=CH- is Ethenyl (Vinyl) and CH2=CH-CH2- is 2-Propenyl (Allyl).*
81
What are the **2 types of Isomer relating to the location of the double bond** of *Alkenes?*
Terminal and Internal Isomer.
82
Exaplain **Internal and Terminal Isomers** for Alkenes and *give examples* of each.
* ***Terminal* isomer** - with C=C bond at *one end* (**asymmetrical**) - e.g. CH2=CHCH2CH3 which is But-1-ene.
* ***Internal* isomer** with the C=C bond in the *middle* (**symmetrical**) - CH3CH=CHCH3 which is But-2-ene.
83
What type of Isomerism do you get in 1,4-disubstituted alkenes?
**Cis/ Trans** Isomerism.
84
Explain the **difference** between *Cis and Trans* Isomerism?
* **Cis** = highest priority groups are on the **same side.**
* **Trans** = highest priority groups are on the **opposite sides.**
85
What is the other type of Isomerism if you can't assign Cis/ Trans?
E/Z Isomerism.
86
Explain the **difference** between *E and Z* Isomerism?
* **E** = highest priority groups are on **opposite sides.**
* **Z** = highest priority groups are on the **same side.**
| (ZeeZameZide).
87
Which is the best type of Isomerism to use?
E/Z Isomerism.
88
When is **Cis/Trans Isomerism** used?
Cis/Trans nomenclature is effective only when the alkene has **two different groups** on each carbon atom of the double bond and *each carbon has one of the same group.*
89
When is **E/Z Isomerism** used?
You can **always** use the E/Z system. It is more reliable and particularly suited to tri- or tetrasubstituted alkenes, especially when the substituents are not alkyl groups. It is used for when there are **more than two different substituents** on a double bond.
90
Which has higher priority: the double bond or the hydroxyl group?
| Give an example to prove this.
Hydroxyl group.
| (e.g. CH2=CHCH2OH is 2-propen-1-ol).
91
What is the **Formula** you use for an *Alkyne?*
CnH2n**-2**.
92
What does the **functional group** of an *Alkyne* look like?
**C≡C** (Carbon carbon triple bond).
93
When the Triple Bond in an Alkyne attacks reagents, what type of bonds are in the molecule(s)?
Single Bonds only.
94
What is the **Suffix** for an *Alkyne?*
-yne.
95
What is the **substituent suffix** after an Alkyne has been deprotonated?
-ynl.
96
Give **examples** of the *first Alkynes.*
Ethyne, Propyne, Butyne, Pentyne, Hexyne, Heptyne, Octyne, Nonyne, Decyne.
97
Some Alkynes have common names instead of their IUPAC name. What is the **common name** for *Ethyne, Propyne and Butyne?*
| (**HINT:** They are very similar).
* Ethyne = **Acetylene.**
* Propyne = **Methylacetylene.**
* Butyne = **Dimethylacetylene.**
98
What functional groups does the Alkyne group take priority over?
Alkanes and Alkenes.
99
Give an example to show how the hydroxyl group takes priority over an Alkyne.
*H3CC(OH)CH2CH2C≡CH* is 5-hexyn-2-ol.
100
What is the Structure of Benzene?
C6H6 (a cyclic structure).
101
What is the other name for the sturture of Benzene?
A Resonance Structure.
102
Why can Benzene be called a **Resonance Structure?**
Because it **exists in 2 different versions**, both with alternating single and double bonds. *The double bonds have π electrons which can move.* Benzene constantly switches between these 2 structures and so it 'resonates' because the **double bonds don't remain in one place.**
103
What is an *example* of **how Benzene is used** in the industry?
It is used in **Flavourings and Fragrences.**
104
What 2 different types of *substituted* Benzene structures are there?
**Mono-**substituted and **Di-**substituted.
105
Give an **example** of a *Mono-substituted Benzene structure.*
| (**HINT:** an explosive).
C6H5NO2 - Nitrobenzene (Explosive).
106
What are the different types of *Di-substituted Benzene structures?*
Ortho, Meta and Para (OMP).
107
Which carbons are substituted for a **Para-**substituted benzene structure?
Carbons **1** and **4**.
108
Which carbons are substituted for a **Meta-**substituted benzene structure?
Carbons **1** and **3**.
109
Which carbons are substituted for a **Ortho-**substituted benzene structure?
Carbons **1** and **2**.
110
What do we have to remember about the Prefix (ortho, meta and para)?
| Give an example.
It has to be in *italics!* (and all in lowercase).
| (e.g. *para-*dibromobenzene).
111
What is R-OH the functional group of?
Alcohols (Hydroxyl group).
112
What is the **Suffix** for an *Alcohol?*
-ol.
113
Explain the difference between Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Alcohols?
* Primary - contains **1** R group.
* Secondary - contains **2** R groups.
* Tertiary - contains **3** R groups. (also need to state *tert-* as a prefix).
114
Give **examples** of the *first 10 Alcohols.*
Methanol, Ethanol, Propanol, Butanol, Pentanol, Hexanol, Heptanol, Octanol, Nonanol, Decanol.
115
What is the ***simplest* secondary alcohol structure?**
**Isopropyl alcohol** - CH3CH(OH)CH3.
## Footnote
The Isopropyl structure which is important! is - *(CH3)2CH-R.*
116
What is the ***simplest* tertiary alcohol structure?**
*tert-*Butylalcohol - (CH3)3COH.
117
Some alcohols have common names. Give some examples.
* **1,2-ethanediol** is Ethylene Glycol (Antifreeze).
* **C6H5OH** is Phenol.
* **1,2,3-propanetriol** is Glycerol/Glycerine (Very Polar compound).
118
# **_Practice Question:_**
When the two substituents in an alkene are on the *same side* of the double bond, what isomer is this?
## Footnote
1. Cis.
2. Trans.
1. Cis.
119
# **_Practice Question:_**
The prefix of a 1,4 Di-substituted Benzene is?
## Footnote
1. Ortho.
2. Meta.
3. Para.
3. Para.
120
# **_Practice Question:_**
When naming alkynes which functional group has priority over the triple bond?
## Footnote
1. Hydroxyl (OH).
2. Alkane.
3. Alkenes.
1. Hydroxyl (OH).
121
What is the **general name** of a functional group that contains a **C=O**?
Carbonyl Group (Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxyllic Acids).
122
What *functional group* has the structure: **R-CHO**?
Aldehydes.
123
What is the **Suffix** for an *Aldehyde?*
-al.
124
Which one has higher priority: Alcohols or Aldehydes?
Aldehydes (carbonyl groups).
125
Why are Aldehydes and the carbonyl group very reactive?
Because the **oxygen is highly electronegative** due to all the electrons surrounding the oxygen creating a **permanent *negative* dipole.** This means the *carbon will be deficient*. It allows Nucleophiles (electron rich) to attack the carbon (that is now deficient) attached to the oxygen, and electrophiles (electron lacking) to attack the oxygen.
126
What **type(s) of reactions** can *Aldehyes* do?
* Polarity Reactions.
* Nucelophilic Reactions.
* Electrophilic Reactions.
127
What does the Oxygen in the Aldehyde have which means it can undergo a special type of covalent bonding?
The Oxygen has a **lone pair of electrons** which allows it to undergo *co-ordinate (dative) covalent bonding.*
128
What is the **Suffix** for a *Cyclic Aldehyde?*
| Give an example.
-carboxaldehyde.
| (e.g. Cyclohexanecarboxaldehyde).
129
What are some **examples** of *Aldehydes with common names?*
* Methanal (**Formaldehyde**).
* Ethanal (**Acetaldehyde**).
130
What does a **Ketone** functional group look like?
R-C(O)-R
| (carbon double bond to the oxygen, C=O).
131
What is the **Suffix** for a *Ketone?*
-one.
132
What **type(s) of reactions** can *Ketones* do?
* Polarity.
* Nucelophilic.
* Electrophilic.
* Coordinate (Dative) Covalent Bonding.
133
What is the name of the *simplest Ketone?*
| What is its common name?
Propanone (Acetone).
134
What are the **different types of Amine** and what do their *structures* look like?
## Footnote
Which is the most basic (base) structure?
* Primary (1°) - **R-NH2.**
* Secondary (2°) - **R2NH.**
* Tertairy (3°) - **R3N** (most basic structure).
135
What is the **Suffix** for an *Amine?*
-amine.
136
What **special prefix** must you remember with **Amines and Amides ONLY?**
When replacing hydrogen groups you need the prefix of **N-**.
| (e.g. for a tertairy amine the prefix is *N,N-*).
137
What is the other prefix you can use to alternatively name an Amine?
Amino-.
138
What is an **example** of a *Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Amine?*
* Primary - *CH3NH2* - Methanamine.
* Secondary - *CH3NHCH2CH3* is **N-**methylethanamine.
* Tertiary - *(CH3)2NCH2CH2CH3* is **N,N-**Dimethylaminopropane.
139
What is an example of an *Amine as a substituent?*
CH3CH2NH2 is **Amino**ethane.
140
What is the last way you can name an Amine?
## Footnote
Give an example.
As you see it.
## Footnote
e.g. CH3NH2 is Methylamine.
141
What is an Amide derived from?
A Carboxyllic Acid.
142
What is the difference between an Amine and an Amide?
An Amide has a Carbonyl group (C=O) and an Amine doesn't.
143
Does an Amine or Amide have higher priority?
**Amide** - because of the carbonyl (C=O) group.
144
What **type of reactions** are *Amides* involved in?
* **Polarity** Reactions.
* **Nucelophilic** Reactions.
* **Electrophilic** Reactions.
* **Coordinate (Dative) Covalent Bonding** Reactions.
145
Why can an Amide react in a coordinate covalent bonding reaction?
Because of the lone pair of electrons on the Nitrogen and Oxygen atoms.
146
What type of compound are Amides? Which structure is the strongest?
They are **very strong bases.** The *tertiary* amide is the strongest.
147
What is the **Suffix** for an *Amide?*
-amide.
148
What type of bond is the functional group part of an Amide?
N-C=O
149
What is the *simplest primary Amide?* What is its common name?
Methanamide (Formamide).
150
What is the *simplest secondary Amide?*
