3C - The process of psychological development Flashcards
The process of psychological development (emotional, cognitive and social development) over the course of the life span
Life span stages
Infancy (0-2 year)
Childhood (2-puberty)
Adolescence (puberty - 18)
Adulthood (18-65)
Old age (65+)
What did Harlow conclude about the importance of contact comfort?
Contact comfort was more important than feeding in the formation of infant–mother attachments
Paligent’s four stages of cognitive development:
- Sensorimotor stage (0-2)
- Pre-operational stage (2-7)
- Concrete Operational stage (7-11)
- Formal operational stage (11+)
Pre-operational stage
Children in this stage develop symbolic thinking, which allows them to use words and images to represent objects and ideas.
- Animism
- Egocentrism
- Symbolic thinking
- Transformation
Sensorimotor stage
Infants learn about the world through their senses and movements.
- Object permanence
- Goal directed behaviour
Formal operational stage
individuals develop more advanced problem-solving skills
- abstract thinking
What is the process of psychological development?
The process of psychological development involves emotional, cognitive, and social development over the life span
What are the three main areas of psychological development?
- Emotional development
- Social development
- Cognitive development
Define emotional development
Emotional development involves changes in how a person experiences, interprets, and expresses the full range of emotions, and their ability to cope with them appropriately
What is a longitudinal study?
A longitudinal study is a type of observational and correlational study that involves monitoring a population over an extended period without manipulating variables
What are some early signs of emotional development in infants (0-2 years)?
- Smiling and frowning at around 8 weeks
- Laughing at 3-4 months
- Expressing a variety of emotions by 6 months
- Showing affection and jealousy at 1-2 years
What emotional developments occur in childhood (2 years to puberty)?
- Rage in the form of temper tantrums at 2-3 years
- Labeling their own emotions
- Recognizing emotions in others
- Understanding how different situations affect emotions
Describe the emotional development of adolescents (puberty to 18 years)
- Less emotional dependence on parents
- Experience of more extreme emotions
- Search for a stable peer group
- Important identity development
What emotional developments occur during adulthood (18-65 years)?
- Developing a stable sense of identity
- Making important life decisions
- Forming intimate relationships
- Experiencing potential mid-life crises
How do older adults (65+ years) typically manage emotions?
Older adults are calmer, better at managing emotions, and focus more on positive information
What is attachment in the context of emotional development?
Attachment is the close social and emotional bond formed between an infant and their caregivers, crucial for healthy emotional development
What is a key limitation of theories focusing on areas of psychological development independently?
These theories may overlook the complexity of psychological development where the three areas interact and influence each other
Fill in the blank: Emotional development is integral to _______ development.
[social and cognitive]
True or False: Emotional development stops after adolescence.
False
What is ‘observational learning’?
[Learning by observing others]
What is ‘goal-directed behaviour’?
[Actions taken to achieve a specific goal]
What is ‘hypothetical-deductive reasoning’?
[The ability to form hypotheses and deduce their implications]
What does ‘object permanence’ mean?
[The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen]
What is ‘egocentrism’ in cognitive development?
[The inability to differentiate between one’s own perspective and that of others]
What is ‘animism’ in childhood cognitive development?
[The belief that inanimate objects have feelings and intentions]
Who originated attachment theory?
John Bowlby
John Bowlby developed attachment theory in 1958 based on his work with emotionally disturbed children.
What are the consequences for children deprived of a stable caregiver during early life?
- Greater likelihood of developing mental disorders, such as depression
- Reduced IQ compared to a control group
- More antisocial behavior and delinquency
- More abnormal interactions and inability to form healthy attachments to their offspring.
What does Bowlby believe is necessary for an infant to thrive emotionally?
A warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with a caregiver.
What is the role of the attachment figure according to Bowlby?
Represents a safe base for exploration.
What did Bowlby conclude about the need to form attachments?
It is innate and enhances the infant’s chances of survival.
What behaviors do infants display that indicate a need for attachment?
- Smiling
- Cooing
- Clinging.
What was the aim of Harlow’s 1958 experiment on attachment?
To investigate the factors influencing the development of attachment between infant monkeys and their mothers.
Describe the procedure involved in Harlow’s experiment.
Infant monkeys were separated from their mothers and reared in cages with two surrogate mothers: one covered in cloth and one made of wire.
What did Harlow find regarding infant monkeys’ attachment preferences?
They spent more time clinging to the cloth surrogate than the wire mother, regardless of which provided food.
What conclusion did Harlow draw about contact comfort?
Contact comfort is more important than feeding in the formation of infant–mother attachments.
What are the four types of attachment identified by Ainsworth?
- Secure attachment (Type B)
- Insecure-resistant attachment (Type A)
- Insecure-avoidant attachment (Type C)
- Insecure-disorganised attachment.
What is the definition of secure attachment?
Infants play and explore comfortably while their caregiver is present and become upset when the caregiver leaves.
What characterizes insecure-resistant attachment?
Anxious attachment due to inconsistent responses from the caregiver, leading to clinginess.
What is insecure-avoidant attachment?
A distant attachment that develops in children who do not experience sensitive responses to their needs.
What behavior is typical of children with insecure-disorganised attachment?
Exhibiting odd or ambivalent behavior towards their caregiver.
How does insecure-disorganised attachment affect individuals in adulthood?
They tend to be inconsistent in behavior and have difficulty trusting others.
What is the significance of Ainsworth’s ‘strange situation’?
It is an experimental procedure to observe attachment styles in infants.
What sampling techniques can be considered when evaluating a theory or model?
- Random
- Stratified
What types of data should be considered when evaluating a psychological investigation?
- Primary data
- Secondary data
- Qualitative data
- Quantitative data
List the types of investigation methodologies that can be used.
- Case study
- Controlled experiment
- Correlational study
- Fieldwork
- Literature review
- Modelling
- Simulation
What are the criteria for determining the quality of a theory or model?
- Accurate
- Precise
- Repeatable
- Reproducible
- Of true value
- Valid (internal and external)
What is separation anxiety?
A child’s distress when separated from their primary caregiver.
According to Ainsworth, what is separation anxiety a sign of?
An attachment between the infant and the caregiver.
Briefly describe ‘the strange situation’.
A procedure to observe attachment relationships between a caregiver and a child.
List the three attachment styles identified by Ainsworth and their respective percentages.
- Secure: 60-65%
- Insecure-resistant: 10-15%
- Insecure-avoidant: 20-25%
How would an infant with a secure attachment respond when the mother leaves and returns?
The infant may be upset when the mother leaves but is easily comforted upon her return.
How would an infant with an insecure-resistant attachment respond during the reunion episode?
The infant may cling to the mother and show anger or resistance upon her return.
How would an infant with an insecure-avoidant attachment respond when the mother leaves?
The infant shows little to no distress when the mother leaves.
What is the link between insecure-disorganised attachment and mental disorders?
It is associated with an increased risk of developing mental disorders.
What changes does social development involve?
Changes in a person’s ability to interact with other people and function as a member of society.
What is social development?
The process by which individuals learn to interact and form relationships with others over the life span.
Provide an example of social development in infancy (0–2 years).
Infants learn that they can trust others to care for them and meet their needs.
Provide an example of social development in childhood (2 years – puberty).
Children learn to share toys and take turns, developing friendships with other children.
Provide an example of social development in adolescence (puberty – 18 years).
Adolescents spend more time with peer groups and develop interest in romantic relationships.
Provide an example of social development in adulthood (18–65 years).
Individuals seek to develop intimacy and often form long-term relationships.
Provide an example of social development in old age (65+ years).
Older individuals can better read emotions and deal with conflict due to their experiences.
What is modelling in the context of social learning?
Learning by observing the behavior of others and replicating it.
What was the Bobo doll experiment designed to demonstrate?
The effects of observational learning and reinforcement on behavior.
What is the outcome when individuals observe positive consequences of behavior?
They are more likely to replicate that behavior.
What is the outcome when individuals observe negative consequences of behavior?
They are less likely to replicate that behavior.
What were the three groups in Bandura’s 1965 experiment?
- Group 1: Model rewarded for aggression
- Group 2: Model punished for aggression
- Group 3: Control group with no consequences
What did Bandura find regarding children who saw the model being rewarded?
They were more likely to act violently towards the Bobo doll by mimicking the behavior.
What conclusion did Bandura reach about offering incentives for aggressive behavior?
Children who saw the model being punished were more likely to replicate aggressive acts when offered a reward.
What is cognitive development?
Changes in an individual’s mental abilities including thinking, learning, imagination, perception, reasoning, decision-making, memory, problem-solving, and language.
What are examples of cognitive development in infancy (0-2 years)?
- Recognizing faces and familiar sounds
- Imitating gestures and actions
- Understanding simple words
- Speaking multiple words by 12 months
What cognitive skills develop during childhood (2 years - puberty)?
- Understanding 100-150 words
- Developing mental imagery and memory
- Learning to read
- Using logic and problem-solving
What cognitive abilities are characteristic of adolescence (puberty - 18 years)?
- Increased independence in thinking
- Ability to think abstractly and hypothetically
- Development of metacognition
What cognitive changes occur in adulthood (18-65 years)?
- Peak cognitive abilities around age 35
- Understanding complex answers to questions
- Development of expertise in studies or careers
What cognitive characteristics are observed in old age (65+ years)?
- Slower cognitive processing speed
- Increased practical problem-solving skills
What did Gibson and Walk conclude from their visual cliff study?
Most human infants can discriminate depth as soon as they can crawl.
What were the strengths of Gibson and Walk’s research on depth perception?
- Conducted in a controlled laboratory setting
- Used with different species improving reliability
- Created a timeline for depth perception development
What were some weaknesses of Gibson and Walk’s study?
- Small sample size of human infants
- Ethical concerns regarding infant distress
- Assumptions about infants’ thoughts and feelings
Fill in the blank: Cognitive development involves changes in an individual’s _______.
[mental abilities]
What ethical concern is raised regarding the visual cliff experiment?
The visual cliff may have caused the infants significant distress, particularly if they had developed their depth perception
Ethical considerations often involve the potential for harm or distress to participants, especially vulnerable populations like infants.
What assumption did researchers have to make about the infants in the study?
Researchers had to make assumptions about what the infants were thinking and feeling as verbal communication was not possible
This highlights challenges in interpreting non-verbal cues in psychological research.
How might maternal cues have influenced the results of the visual cliff study?
Verbal cues (e.g. facial expressions) used by mothers may have changed depending on whether they were calling their child from the shallow or deep end of the visual cliff
Variations in maternal behavior could introduce biases in the infants’ responses.
What age range of infants did Gibson and Walk’s experiment focus on?
Infants aged 6–14 months
This age range is critical for the development of depth perception and mobility.
Who dominated the area of cognitive development?
Jean Piaget
Piaget devoted most of his life to studying cognitive development.
What are the two cognitive processes Piaget identified as essential for cognitive development?
Assimilation and accommodation
These processes help children adapt to their changing world.
Define assimilation in the context of cognitive development.
A cognitive process that involves taking a new concept and fitting it into a pre-existing mental idea or structure.
What is a schema?
Our pre-existing mental ideas relating to a given concept that help us organise and interpret new information.
Provide an example of assimilation.
Three-year-old Maya incorrectly calls shampoo ‘sauce’ because she fits it into her existing schema of ‘sauce’.
Define accommodation in cognitive development.
A cognitive process that involves changing or adjusting existing ideas to deal with new situations.
At what age does object permanence typically develop?
Around 5–8 months of age.
What is symbolic thinking?
A type of thinking that uses symbols, such as words or images, to solve simple problems.
What characterizes Piaget’s pre-operational stage?
Children learn to use symbols confidently, engage in pretend play, and exhibit egocentrism.
What is transformation in cognitive development?
The understanding that something can change from one state, form, or structure to another.
What is the concrete operational stage?
The stage (7-11 years) where children can perform mental operations on real, tangible objects.
What does reversibility mean in cognitive development?
The understanding that actions can be undone or reversed.
Define conservation.
The understanding that certain qualities of an object remain the same even when its appearance changes.
What is conservation of volume?
The understanding that the amount or size of an object remains the same even when its appearance changes.
What is conservation of mass?
The understanding that the weight or mass of an object remains the same, even when its appearance changes.
What is conservation of number?
The understanding that the number of objects remains the same despite a change in their appearance.
What is conservation of length?
The understanding that the length of objects remains the same despite a change in their appearance.
What is the conservation of number?
The understanding that the number of objects remains the same despite a change in their appearance.
What is an example of a child demonstrating conservation of number?
A child recognizes that five coins in two rows, despite being rearranged, still amount to the same quantity.
What is an example of conservation of length?
A child recognizes that two matchsticks, despite one being repositioned, are still the same length.
What is classification in cognitive development?
The ability to sort objects into groups based on features that are similar or different.
What can a child who can classify do with shapes?
Group them based on type (triangle, square, circle), size (large, medium, small), and color (orange, blue, green).
Define abstract thinking.
A way of thinking that is not reliant on directly observing, visualizing, experiencing, or manipulating something to understand it.
What occurs during Piaget’s formal operational stage?
Adolescents become systematic in problem-solving using hypothetical-deductive reasoning.
What is a key accomplishment of the formal operational stage?
The ability to use abstract thinking.
True or False: Many adults reach the formal operational stage of cognitive development.
False.
What is one strength of Piaget’s theory?
It has inspired countless studies that improved understanding of children’s cognitive development.
What is one limitation of Piaget’s theory?
He underestimated children’s cognitive development, such as object permanence.
According to Bandura, how does social learning occur?
Through observation and imitation of others.
What is cognitive development?
The process of growth and change in intellectual capabilities.
Example: Developing problem-solving skills.
What is the term for the developmental stage from around six years of age until puberty?
Latency period
This stage is characterized by the development of skills and social interactions.
