31 - Australia Flashcards
Describe the export boom of the 1980s and the subsequent decline.
Describe factors driving both.
Boom
Australia’s wine production boomed –> became world’s 5th largest exporter
- Via varietal labelling and including taste descriptors
- Ripe, approachable styles
Plantings rose from 59,000ha –> 170,000ha in late 2000s
Re-adjustments
Plantings fell from 170,000ha –> 146,000ha
- Global oversupply - many countries copying ripe, accessible style
- Strong Aussie dollar
- Series of droughts increased cost of irrigation
–> outcome is vine pull and refocus on smaller production / higher val bottlings
Describe the climatic conditions of Australia.
Range of climates from cool - hot and Mediterranean - continental depending on:
a) exposure to ocean influence –> Indian and Southern Ocean, flat topography allows breezes to penetrate far inland e.g. Coonawarra; some areas protected by mountain ranges e.g. Murray-Darling
b) altitude e.g. Great Dividing Range from Queensland to western Victoria
Intense sunlight due to low altitudes (30-37 degrees south = southern Europe)
Low rainfall e.g. Riverland 135mm during growing season due to rainshadow of GDR
What are the main climatic challenges in Australia? (5)
Drought very low levels of rainfall + high evapo mean irrigation necessary but water scarce
Spring frost in cooler areas
Sunburn due to low latitudes
Forest/bush fires due to heat and dryness
Soil salinity due to lack of rainfall
Outline the reasons for the difference in the climatic conditions between the Hunter Valley, Riverland and Tasmania. (3)
Hunter Valley hot, humid
Murray-Darling hot, continental, dry
Tasmania cool, maritime
1. Latitude Hunter Valley at low latitude 32S vs. Tasmania at 41S
2. Rainshadows MD largely protected from tropical storms by GDR, Hunter Valley to east of GDR so not protected –> MD gets around 135mm of rain, Hunter Valley gets 500mm
3. Continenality Tasmania exposed to cold Southern Ocean, MD protected by GDR and location inland
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of Australia’s climate for viticulture? (6)
+ Minimal disease pressure
+ Plenty of sunshine
+ Consistent warmth
- Lack of water –> requires irrigation –> limited water supply
- Excessive heat + sunshine –> excessive ripeness
- Managing vigour due to heat (when vines are irrigated)
Where is water for irrigation sourced? (3)
- Rivers e.g. Murray-Darling Basin –> but can run low
- Stored rainwater e.g. regions with some winter rainfall e.g. Adelaide Hills
- Unground water sources e.g. Coonawarra
Due to plentiful warmth and sunlight as well as fertile soil, irrigated vines can be vigorous. How is this commonly managed? (2)
- Divided canopy systems e.g. Scott-Henry
- Old vines esp. of Shiraz and Grenache
Why is much Australian viticulture mechanised?
- Many regions are flat e.g. Murray-Darling
- High labour costs
- Many vineyards far from towns and cities - limited labour availability e.g. Murray-Darling
- Night harvesting important in hot climates as grapes ripen quickly
- Improvements mean machine harvesters can limit grape splitting
What is the impact of soil salinity and how can it be managed?
More difficult for vine to get water –> slow growth, death
Chardonnay esp. sensitive
- Suitable rootstocks
- Changing irrigation patterns –> supply more water, less frequently
Which areas of Australia have phylloxera? Why do growers graft their vines in non-phylloxera zones?
Phylloxera present in Victoria and New South Wales
Grafting used as insurance against future outbreaks, to improve drought and salinity tolerance
Which regions of Australia have unusually high levels of humidity? (4)
Adelaide Hills
southern Victoria
Hunter Valley
parts of Tasmania
All are exposed to ocean influence
Roughly what % of production is certified sustainable?
25% by Sustainable Winegrowing Australia
What are the two main natural pests?
How is each dealt with?
Birds and kangaroos
Birds –> netting
Kangaroos –> nothing to be done
Why might whole bunch harvesting be especially desirable?
Limits grape splitting - slows oxidation in hot conditions
Name the top 11 most planted grape varieties (4 red, 7 white).
Why is Austalia able to ripen such a wide variety of grapes?
Diversity of climates from cool to hot
What kind of grapes are gaining popularity and why?
Grapes suited to warm, dry climates e.g. Tempranillo, Sangiovese, Fiano and Assyrtiko
Better suited to handling warmer, drier conditions esp. where access to irrigation may be limited
Describe some techniques that Australian winemakers have been experimenting with?
- Site selection - cooler sites
- Vineyard management
- Precise harvesting dates
- Ambient yeast
- Lees contact
- High % of solids in fermentation
- Whole bunch and stems for reds
Outline the range of styles produced from Shiraz including where these styles may be produced.(4)
1. Warm, ripe style from Barossa and McLaren Vale
Full-bodied, high alcohol, high/soft tannin, with pronounced dark fruit, spice and earthy + leather with age
2. Cooler, fresher style from Yarra Valley and Grampians
Less bodied with med alcohol, red + black fruit, black pepper
Trend is toward this style - less extraction, wholebunch, less new oak
3. Blend of above styles from multi-regional blends
4. Blended with other grapes e.g. GSM, Viognier, Cabernet Sauvignon (where it adds softness and body, like Merlot)
Identify one key difference between premium and inexpensive Shiraz-Viognier blends.
Premium may be co-fermented to improve integration and complexity –> also helps colour stability
Inexpensive may be blended post-fermentation
Describe the typical style of Cabernet Sauvignon produced and which regions are well-known for it.
Range of styles from cool - warm climate but all have higher acid / tannins than Shiraz
Ripe blackcurrant and cherry + oak for mid-priced wines
Coonawarra distinctively minty
Margaret River often blended with Merlot, riper with subtler herbal notes
Describe the style produced by Merlot, Pinot Noir and Grenache.
Merlot often blended with Cab, varietal wines are med body - full-bodied with ripe black fruit aromas
Pinot Noir med-body, med alcohol, med-high acid, red fruit with oak aging; whole bunch, stem inclusion and whole bunch has become popular
Grenache predominately in GSM blends; varietal wines growing in popularity with modern styles having more acid, lowering alcohol and fresher fruit from early harvest; wholebunch to enhance aromas and stem inclusion to enhance tannins; large, old oak is common
How has Chardonnay changed in style in the last few decades?
What determines whether or not it goes through malo?
What may Chardonnay be blended with?
Ripe fruit, overt oak –> earlier harvested, leaner style with less obvious oak
HQ wines often have ripe fruit (citrus, peach) with med-med(+) acid and integrated oak
Warmth of vineyard - may be blocked to retain acid
Inexpensive wine maybe blended with Semillon - Chard contributed ripe fruit to a Semillon’s restrained character
How does Sauvignon Blanc in Australia differ from Marlborough in New Zealand?
Which regions have a particular reputation for it?
Less herbaceous
Adelaide Hills excellent rep for HQ with intense citrus and tropical fruit
Margaret River Bdx blends
What styles of wine can be made from Pinot Grigio?
Early harvested neutral style akin to Veneto
Riper, spicy, full-bodied style akin to Alsace
What styles of wine are produced using Semillon? Which regions make these? (3)
Hunter Valley style high acid, low alcohol, unoaked neutral –> aromatic when aged
Barossa Valley fuller-bodied with higher ABV and oak, although
Noble-rot sweet with from Riverina
Where are the best Riesling produced? In what style?
What kind of juice is popular for premium Riesling?
Cooler regions of Clare and Eden Valley as well as Great Southern, Canberra, Tasmania
Bone dry with high acid apple –> citrus –> peach; with some late-harvested, sweeter styles
Premium wines often made with free-run juice –> highest in acid and sugar, low phenolic compounds –> purest, best balance (although producers using skin contact and lees for texture)
Where are Muscat Gordo Blanco (Muscat of Alexandria) and Colombard grown in Australia. What are they used for?
Hot, inland areas like Riverland, Murray-Darling and Riverina
Colombard is used to bulk up blends labelled as Chardonnay
Muscat used as blending partner and in sparkling Moscato wines
Outline the hierarchy of Australia’s GIs.
Zones large areas that cover entire states (Victoria) or encompass several (SEA) some smaller zones also exist (Barossa)
Regions various sizes but have consistent and distinct qualities e.g. Connawarra, Tasmania
Sub-regions rarer GI accounting for differences in climate, soil and topography including within Great Southern, Hunter Valley
How does Australia’s system of GIs give producers flexibility?
Can apply various labels to same/similar wines esp. when grapes come from different areas
E.g. wine from Eden Valley Grapes can be labelled as Eden Valley (region), Barossa (zone), Adelaide (super-zone), South Australia (zone) or South Eastern Australia (zone)
What % of grapes must conform if GI, vintage or variety is mentioned on the label?
Are there any other rules outline by GIs on viti or vini?
85%
None.
Describe the situation, climate, soils and wines of SEA.
Situation very large area including three states, most grapes from Riverina, Murray-Darling and Riverland, an area collectively known as the Murray-Darling basin
Climate hot and continental due to low altitude and lack of maritime influence (GDR) –> also dry with rainfall as low as 135mm
N.B. Riverland is cooler, despite being 200km from coast, flat land allows martime breeze to reach it
Soils sandy
Wines
Inexpensive: vast majority grown from Shiraz, Chardonnay and some Semillon (Riverina) w/ low acid, high alcohol, med body and ripe fruit.
Yellow Tail, Jacob’s Creek, Lindeman’s
HQ: emerging esp. from old vines and hot-climate varieties e.g. Viognier, Vermentino, Nero d’Avola; botrytised Semillon in Riverina
Why is irrigation necessary in the Murray-Darling Basin? How is it performed?
- Low rainfall
- High evapotranspiration - due to hot climate
- Free draining, sandy soil
Water from rivers low water levels during droughts means drip irrigation is common
Despite this, high water prices have pushed some growers out of business
Describe the conditions which make it possible for Riverina to produce HQ, botrytised wine.
Closer to coast - autumn has rainfall and humidity w/ morning mists and afternoon sun
Producers like De Bortoli
To what extent does the Murray-Darling trio dominate wine production?
Combines the three largest regions by hectarage and crop.
How do SEA producers introduce freshness into their wines?
May blend small amounts of non M-D wines from cooler, coastal regions
How do producers of Shiraz in the Barossa Zone use its sub-regions to ensure balance?
Blend fruit from the warmer Barossa Valley and cooler Eden Valley
Outline the difference in topography, climate and soil between the Barossa Valley and the Eden Valley?
Topography
Barossa Valley plain (250-270m) sheltered from sea by hills
Eden Valley rolling, exposed hills as part of the Mount Lofty Range up to 600m
Climate
Barossa Valley warm climate, low rainfall (160mm)
Eden Valley cooler with higher rainfall (230mm), wind can affect flowering
Soils
Barossa Valley various soils create blending opportunities, ironstone soils in north have prized water retention
Eden Valley variety but many have good water holding capacity, so dry farming is more common
Explain the differences in style between the Barossa Valley and Eden Valley.
Barossa Valley has warmer, dry climate, Eden Valley has cooler, wetter climate –> mainly due to altitude
Shiraz from Barossa Valley is full-bodied, high in alcohol with high/soft tannin and pronounced ripe/dried black fruit + oak aromas –> develops spice, leather with time. Large stock of old vines due to phyl-free increasing concentration. May also be blended with Grenche.
Shiraz from Eden Valley has higher acid, firmer tannin, low alcohol with fresher flavours
Riesling from Eden Valley dry, high acid, med alcohol, protective winemaking with citrus and floral –> honey, nuts with age
Whites from Barossa HQ Chardonnay and full-bodied Semillon
How has the Barossa Valley sought to promote and preserve old vines?
Phylloxera free has meant large stock of old vines
But many lost due to vine pull in 1980s
Barossa Old Vine Charter records and promotes these
Describe the growing environment of the Mounty Lofty Zone? (4)
Diurnal variation - Clare Valley plantings are 300-500m
Range of climates e.g. Adelaide Hills has cool climate at high altitude sites near ocean and moderate at lower altitude, west facing sites
Maritime influence means that higher rainfall ~300mm in Adelaide Hills
Latitude –> intense sunlight –> grape show ripe flavours
What challenges are presented by the growing environment in the Lofty Mountain Zone? (4)
- Great humidity esp. in Adelaide Hills (not an issue in Clare Valley)
- Steep hillsides esp. in Adelaide Hills prohibit mechanisation
- Low latitude means grapes need shade esp. Riesling in Clare Valley
- Rainfall higher but may fall during winter e.g. Clare Valley –> dry farm or great reservoirs with dams, underground sources also an option
Describe the styles of wine unique to Adelaide Hills and Clare Valley?
Adelaide Hills
Sauvignon Blanc intense ripe fruit, high acidity, med alcohol, mid-priced and VG
Chardonnay ripe stone fruit, med(+)-high acid, med body with lots of winemaking, HQ
Pinot Noir med(+) acid, med alcohol, med body, red fruit HQ
Shiraz in a range of styles, generally HQ
Clare Valley
Riesling very dry, med body, limey in youth. Flinty soils of Polish Hill give leaner, less aromatic styles; limestone of Watervale given early drinking styles; good-outstanding/mid-premium
Shiraz and Cab med-med(+) acid and tannins, pronounced ripe black fruit, minty/eucalyptus character HQ
Briefly summarise the situation, climate, viticulture, and wines of McLaren Vale.
Any other notable factors?
Situation large, mostly flat area south of Adelaide
Climate warm/hot moderated by sea breeze, moderately dry
Viticulture Large vineyard trellised to manage vigour, some producers use bush vines
Wines almost entirely black grapes in full range of quality levels incl Shiraz, Cab, Grenache
Best wines from old vines at higher elevations on water-retaining clay/sand soil
Dry, windy climate means many organic and biodynamic producers + sustainability also irrigation using dams, boreholes and recycled wastewater
Describe the situation, topography, climate, soils and wine of the Limestone Coast and Coonawarra.
Situation closer to Victoria than the rest of South Australia’s other regions, Connawarra around 100km from coast covering 5000ha
Topography flat allowing sea breezes to come far inland
Climate Connawarrra moderate with warm days –> higher latitude and sea breeze; low rainfall around 260mm
Soils various limestone soils including terra rossa
Wine Cab S most famous with dark fruit, eucalyptus, oak with med-full-body, med alcohol, high/firm tannin + some Shiraz, Chardonnay and Riesling
Describe terra rossa and how it impacts vine growth
Iron-rich loam over hard limestone layer with soft, water retaining limestone underneath
- alkaline nature reduces nutrient uptake –> reduces yield
- limestone is difficult for roots to penetrate –> reduces yield
Name two viticultural hazards on the Limestone Coast plus a human difficulty.
- Spring frost
- Poor flowering due to rainfall
Human problem - isolated so labour difficult to find –> mechanisation and migrant labour being used
Why are producers in Mornington Peninsula mainly small, estates?
High land prices due to demand for tourism and leisure means focus on small-volume, HQ wines
To what extent is dry-farming vs. irrigation practised?
Both are common - limestone and some clays help soils retain water so dry-farming used but water from underground aquifers also popular
Describe the growing environment of the Port Philip zone using some of its regions as examples. Outline the climate, rainfall, topography soils, and any notable viticultural characteristics.
Climate cool-moderate due to southerly latitude and influence of sea e.g. Mornington Peninsula which is directly on the coast; warmer vineyards further away e.g. Lower Yarra –> frost risk in flatter, cool areas
Rainfall varies between the sub-zones but is generally higher than in other areas. Up to 500mm during the growing season in Yarra, lower elsewhere –> some disease pressure, threat of flowering/fruit set
Topography Altitude varies e.g. Yarra Valley between 50-350m, up to 800m in the Macedon Ranges
Soils vary e.g. lower Yarra has loam (unfertile but free-draining), upper Yarra has volcanic (fertile but retains water); red basalt salts of Mp’s Red Hill retain water but they are fertile (trellising)
Other viticultural features…
Wind plays an important role in moderating risk of frost and disease esp. for Mornington Peninsula
Describe the wines that the regions of the Port Philip zone are noted for.
Pinot Noir light-med body with ripe red fruit and a mixture of oak maturation, some wholebunch used. Generally HQ.
Chardonnay peach, grapefruit, melon with high acid and medium body with some producers picking early to produce a lean style w/o malo or new oak and high % of solids for reductive flavours. HQ.
Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon in lower altitude, warmer sites esp. in Yarra with some fuller-bodied wines from Geelong; tends to be medium-bodied with fresh fruit and often made with wholebunch
What distinguishes regions in the Western Victoria zone? (4)
Which styles of wine is it known for producing?
High altitude sites provide a moderating influence e.g. Grampians 240-440m
Antarctic wind cools many vineyard e.g. Henty is one of coldest mainland regions
Sandy soils retain water well so no need for irrigation in Grampians
Acidic soils reduce vigour and yields in Grampians
Grampians and Pyrenees known for medium-bodied, peppery Shiraz, Henty produces a range of grapes and styles from Pinot Gris to Cab Sav
Describe the growing environment of the North-east Victoria zone and the wines it produces.
Continental given distance from coast with temperature depending on topography e.g. warm, flat Rutherglen to King Valley at up to 860m (very cool, lots of rainfall)
King Valley varies based on altitude from 250-680m with plantings of Glera for sparkling wine, Pinot Gris for still wines in dry, light-bodied Pinot Grigio style and many black grapes incl. Sangiovese, Barbera and Nebbiolo
Beechworth has similar diversity with altitudes of 200-1000m
What challenges of a region like King Valley face in marketing its wines?
For historical reasons, Italian grape varieties are very important
However, these are difficult to sell compared to wines made from those grapes in Italy especially int’l
Due to small production, prices are also fairly high
Briefly outline the growing conditions in the Central Victora zone and the wine produced.
Warm, flat plains with some altitude in Heathcote
Goulburn Valley and Bendigo well-suited to ripe, full-bodied reds and Viognier, Marsanne and Roussanne; Upper Goulburn makes fresher styles incl from Chard, Riesling, Savvy B
Heathcote has moderated conditions due to altitude and southerly winds + limestone soils –> dry farming of full-bodied Shriaz possible
Outline the range of climates in New South Wales.
Hunter Valley sub-tropical with warm-hot temps, high humidity and rainfall
Remaining zones/regions protected by GDR so have hot, dry and continental climate with altitude moderating temps
Describe the growing conditions in the Hunter Valley.
Climate sub-tropical –> hot with intense sunlight due to low latitude, high humidity and ~500mm of rainfall during growing season
- Nights are relatively cool and afternoon clouds help to shield vines from most intense sunlight
- Tropical storms in late summer can present a challenge during harvest
- Lower Hunter closer to sea so cooler
Soils are clay based –> in addition to rainfall, no irrigation needed
Topography low, undulating hills
Identify the challenges of growing grapes in the Hunter Valley. (3)
- High humidity –> disease pressure
- Vigour due to clay and higher rainfall
- Summer storms –> harvest early
Describe the styles of wine that the Hunter Valley is known for.
Semillon harvested early, neutral in youth developing pronounced toast, honey and hay aromas with ageing; dry, low-alcohol, high acid; often released after five years of ageing; varying quality but not cheap
Chardonnay full range of styles
Shiraz red/black fruit + oak, medium-bodied with med-high aBV
Name the three regions of the Central Ranges zone. Briefly describe their growing environment and the wine produced.
Mudgee, Orange and Cowra
All have continental climates, with low rainfall and altitude provides moderating influence
Orange vineyards 600-900m on volcanic soils and gravel with very windy conditions
In Orange… Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon in a fresh, spicy, herbal, med ABV, medium-bodied style; Chardonnay, Sauvignon and Pinot Gris also popular; generally mid-priced/good-VG
Elsewhere … warmer conditions mean fuller-bodied Shiraz and Cab + Chardonnay
What are the advantages and disadvantages of strong winds?
+ Moderates temperatures
+ Reduces disease pressure
+ Reduces frost risk
- May disrupt fruit set
Describe the situation and growing conditions of Tasmania including climate, sub-regional differences, rainfall and main viti challenges.
Situation 250km south of mainland
Climate cool, maritime due to high latitude (41-43S) and cool winds from Southern Ocean
Rainfall high levels from wet southerly winds, up to 350mm during growing season
Sub-regional differences
- East coast is largely sheltered from wet, southerly winds e.g. Tamar Valley –> warmer, drier
- Soutehrn Tasmania cooler than north due to latitude and exposure –> site selection critical
Viticultural Challenges
- Rainfall in east –> fungal disease
- Spring frost
- Lack of warmth esp. in south
Outline the style and volume of wine produced in Tasmania.
Where is most Tasmanian wine sold?
Tasmania accounts for 1% of total Australian production
Pinot Noir red fruit, light-med body, med(+)-high acidity, med alcohol –> riper styles in north/west
Chardonnay apple, white pear, peach; high acid w/ malo with medium ABV, medium body
–> oak ageing for top wines of both styles common
Others Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, Pinot Gris, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz
Sales mainly domestic with lots of cellar door
Describe the size and nature of production in the South West Australia Zone.
Represents 3% of total production by volume but focusses on premium wines
Describe the growing conditions in Margaret River and the wine produced as a result.
Warm, maritime climate
Southern ocean provides cooling influence, Indian Ocean keeps temps warm at night
Relatively dry growing season ~275mm (with a total of 1000mm falling during the year)
Flat region but gravelly ridge runs through centre –> free draining, poor nutrition; warmer vineyards to its east
Cabernet Sauvignon + Merlot produces BDX-style wines with blackberry, blackcurrant and spice, med(+) acid, high/ripe tannin, med(+)-full body
Chardonnay stone fruit, with high acid and med-full body w oak ageing but w/o malo
Sauvignon Blanc + Semillon gooseberry –> tropical fruit and grassy, herbaceous aromas with high acid and various vessels from SST to barrels
Describe the growing conditions of Great Southern vary and how this affects the style of wine produced.
Coastal regions like Albany and Denmark have maritime climate; inland regions like Frankland River is more continental –> warmer, drier but larger diurnals
Rainfall differs depending on proximity to coast –> coastal regions can be dry-farmed
Altitude important moderating factor in-land e.g. highest vineyards at 300m
Shiraz is the most popular grape and planted in warmer areas like Frankland River with style ranging from medium-full body with high acid and tannins; herbal, pepper and spice notes common; use of wholebunch common
Cabernet Sauvignon varies depending on region - intense, full-bodied from Mount Barker vs. cooler and elegant from Porongurup
Riesling flagship white grape with Porongurup leading region; toasty, stoney character with age and light-body
Aromatic Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay in range of styles also produced
What has happened to the number of branded wineries over the past 10 years?
Fallen by about 10% as a result of many wineries ceasing production to
What portion of producers are small?
What % of exports do the five largest companies account for?
80% of producers crushed fewer than 250 tonnes of grapes
Top five (incl. Accolade, Casella, Treasure) export 87% by vol
How is Wine Australia funded and what does it do?
Funded by levy on growers, aims to promote Australian wine domestically and abroad
How important are exports to Australia’s wine industry?
Where are Australia’s largest markets?
Which export market is growing fastest?
Very - accounts for 2/3 of sales
UK, China, US, Canada and Germany are main markets
China - volume sales dipping but value growing HOWEVER trade dispute in 2020 has jeopardised this growth
What role does DTC and cellar door play in Australia?
Cellar Door - 2/3 of wineries have a cellar door, up to 80% in Tasmania
Wine tourism raises profile of individual regions, increased margins, helps cash flow esp. in regions near Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide
Online shops have helped even isolated regions benefit from DTC
What are the opportunities and challenges in selling wines made from uncommon grape varieties?
Heat tolerance varieties have become increasingly popular
+ Diversification makes demand resilient to changing tastes
+ USP compared to other New World markets that also sell int’l varieties
- Competition from producers growing these grapes in more famous origin regions
- Small production volumes mean high prices (for now)
