2.1 Skill Acquisition- Skill classification, types of practice, transfer of skills, learning theories, stages of learning, guidance, feedback, Flashcards
What is a skill
Motor of movement -
An action or task that has a goal and that requires voluntary body and or limb movements to achieve the goal and is learned rather then innate
What is difficulty continuum
Simple ( less decisions/less info to process) - complex skills (more inf/ lots of decisions
Types of judgment and decisions
What are simple skills
No decisions to make
Less judgment
Eg sprint
What are complex skills
Many decisions to make
Make sense of information
Eg pass in sport
What is the organisation continuum
High organisation- low organisation
Type of skill and how it’s made up
What are high organisation skills
Made up of sub-routines which are different to separarte
(Golf swing)
What are low organisation skills
Sub-routines easily identifiable as separate movements
(Tennis serve)
What is a sub-routine
The elements of separate movements that make up a particular skill
What is the environmental influence continuum
Open closed skills continuum
Effects of the environment
What is an open skill
Affected by environment
Perceptual skills
Movements have to be adapted
Externally paced
What is a closed skill
Not affected by environment
Habitual skills
Self-paced skill
What is the pacing continuum
Timing of moments
Externally paced- self paced
What is an externally paced skill
Environment controls the rate of performing the skill
Usually open skills
Eg receiving serve
What is a self paced skill
Performer controls rate in which skill is executed
usually closed
Eg javelin
What is the muscular involvement continuum
Gross/fine continuum
Precision of the movement
What are gross skills
Large muscle movements
Not precise
Include fundamental movement
Patterns,walking, jumping
What is a fine movement
Intricate movement using small muscle groups precise and require hand coordination
What is the continuity continuum
The discrete - serial- continuous skills
How well defined the beginning and end of the skill are
What is a discrete skill
Clear beginning and end of the skill is repeated it must start again
Single specific skills
What is a serial movement
Made up of discrete elements which are put together to form a sequence
Eg triple jump
Dance routine
What is fixed practise
A stable and predictable practise environment which practice conditions remaining unchanging or ‘fixed’
What is an advantage of fixed practise
Enables habitual moments to be learned effectively
What is varied practise
Practise needs to be varied so that the performer can come into contact with a range of experiences
What is an advantage of varied practice
Allows you to learn lots of skills in one session
What is massed practice
Practise that involves very short or no rest intervals with the session
What is an advantage of massed practise
Cardiovascular endurance
What is distributed practice
Relatively long rests between trials
What is an advantage of distributed practise
Athletes have time to recover or practise mental rehearsal
What is a disadvantage distributed practise
Takes time away from sport
What is part practice
Teaching the skill in parts
Put them all together
What are the advantages of part practise
Good for skills which are complex
Good for dangerous skills
Good for beginners
Disadvantage of part practice
Takes longer than other methods
Lose kinaesthetic sense of the skill
What is progressive- part practices
Learn one part of the skill then the next part and add that together
Advantages of progressive-part practice
Quicker than part method
Helps learner understand complex skills
Good for serial skills
Good for complex skills
Good for low organisation skills
Disadvantage of progressive part practice
Not suitable for skills high in organisation
What is whole part whole practise
Performer attempts the whole skill. Then practices part of it. Then out it into the whole skill again
Advantages of whole-part whole
Allows coach to focus on weakness
Quicker then progressive part
Performer gets whole feel
Disadvantage of whole part whole
Not always suitable for highly organised or dangerous skills
What is whole practice
Skills is taught as a hole
Advantages of whole practice
Quickest
Develop kinaesthetic for the skill
Transfer of the skill from practise to real situation is likely to be better
Disadvantage of whole practise
Not suitable for dangerous skills
Not suitable for complex skills
Not suitable for beginners
What is a skill transfer
The influence of the learning and/or performance of one skill on the learning and/or performance of another
What is proactive transfer
The influence of one skill on a skill yet to be performed
Practical example of proactive transfer
Knowing how to throw a javelin and then throwing a tennis ball
What is retroactive transfer
The influence of one skill on the learning or performance of a skill that has previously been learned
Practical example of retroactive transfer
Javelin- tennis ball - back to javelin
What is positive transfer
When the learning and performance helps the learning and performance of another skill
Practical example of positive transfer
Linking seat drop and then half twist and then to swivel hips
What is negative transfer
When the learning and performance of one skill hinders the learning and performance of another
Practical example of negative transfer
Playing badminton and then learning tennis
What is bilateral transfer
The transfer of learning from one limb to another
Practical example of bilateral transfer
Kicking left foot and then on right
What is the operant conditioning theory
Theory claims
We learn through manipulation of behaviour towards a stimulus
Involves the learner forming stimulus-response (S-R) bond
TRIAL AND ERROR
MODIFICATION OF BEHAVIOUR
USE REINFORCED TO STRENGTHEN THE S-R BOND
using positive - after successful response - teacher present a satisfier
and negative reinforcement- use an annoyer that weakens the incorrect learning bond
Practical example of learning a skill using operant conditioning
Net shots in badminton
Hand fed shuttle to learner (manipulate environment)
Learner attempts a few shots (trial and error)
Positive reinforcement enforced correct response
What is partial reinforcement
Reward given after a number of correct responses, learning takes longer but lasts longer
What is complete reinforcement
Learning is faster if a reward is given on every occasion
What is punishment
involves giving an unpleasant stimulus to a performer to prevent a response from occurring
What are THORNDIKES LAWS
LAW OF EXERCISE
LAW OF EFFECT
LAW OF READINESS
What is the law of exercise
Repeating or rehearsing the S-R connections is more likely to strengthen them. If the desired responses occurs, reinforcement is necessary
What is the law of effect
Is the response is followed by a ‘satisfier’ the S-R bond is strengthened and an ‘annoyer’ the S-R bond is weakened
What is the Law of readiness
Performer must be physically and mentally capable of performing the skills
What is the cognitive learning theory by gestalists
Theory concerned with thinking and understanding
Learning is best achieved by presenting the whole skill to the learner in context of a realistic situation
This develops the performers understanding of what the skill is and why they are doing it
Intervening variables are variables/influences that are taken into account
Problem-solving involving memory . Previous experiences are used to help solve new problems
Practical example of learning a skill using cognitive learning
Give children lots of sporting experience to allow them to develop problem solving and decision making in sports
Skills learned as a whole
What is the social learning/ observational theory
Bandura
Involves copying a demonstration of a motor skill
Personality and associated behaviour are determined by the situation or social environment rather then a series of traits
How do significant others help us learn (observational theory)
People who are highly significant to us often called role models.
Copy them
What is cueing (observational learning theory )
Identifying important cues or stimuli
For example watching the arm of your opponent when receiving a serve
Practical example of social learning theory
Watching tv
Watching demonstrations
Tutorial videos
what are BANDURA four process of observational learning theory
ATTENTION
RETENTION
MOTOR REPRODUCTION
MOTIVATION
Why is attention important for observational theory
Learner must focus directly onto demonstration and focus on cues
Amount of attention depend on perceived attractiveness of the model
The observer attention span and their incentives are important
Why is retention important for observation learning theory
Observer must be able to remember the model that presented
Mental rehearsal can be used to create mental image
Why is motor reproduction important for observational learning theory
Must be physically or psychologically able to copy or replace the skill
Demo should be matched to the abilities of the performer
Feedback during practice is important
Why is motivation important for the process of observational learning
Learner must have drive/ motivation to match the performance of the skill being modelled
External reinforcement of the model will be increased motivation to replicate it
What are the 3 phases of learning
Cognitive
Associative
Autonomous
What is the cognitive stage of learning
Performance inconsistent
Lack fluency
Learning occours through Trial and error
Correct performance must be reinforced
What is the associative phase of learning
Performance becoming more consistent
Performer can associate movements either mental picture
Performer begins to correct own errors
What is the autonomous phase of learning
Fluent, consistent, aesthetically pleasing
Skills are automatic
Performer can judge own performance
What is verbal guidance
Used to describe the action and explain how to perform the activity
Must not speak for too long
Some movements can’t be explained
Advantage of verbal guidance
It can be in the form of feedback
Can hold the attention of the performer if used appropriately
Disadvantage of verbal guidance
Can lead to ‘information overload’
Guidance could be inaccurate
What is visual guidance
Helps learning create a mental image of the skill and its performance
Demonstrations/ visual aids/ videos
Advantage of visual guidance
Performer easily creates a mental picture
Encourage observational learning
Disadvantage of visual guidance
If demonstration is incorrect - performer have bad habits
Coach may be unable to show an accurate demonstration
What is manual and mechanical guidance
1- Physical support from a person or mechanical device. ‘Physical restriction ‘
2- response of the performer being directed physically by another person ‘forced response’
Advantages of manual and mechanical guidance
Can give performer greater sense of safety
Isolate an important aspect of skil
Disadvantage of mechanical and manual guidance
Over- restrictive
‘False sense of kinaesthetic’
Why is feedback so important for a performer
Helps with motivation and confidence
Allows progress
I’m cognitive stage of learning what feedback would they receive
External as they don’t understand the skills fully
In the associative stage of learning what feedback would they need
Needs coaches input but will start to develop internal feedback
In the autonomous stage what feedback would they receive
Internal feedback as they can detect and correct their own errores
From external - for tactics
What is intrinsic feedback
Feedback that comes internally
Advantages of intrinsic feedback
Readily available
Movements corrected immediately
Performer doesn’t have to rely on others
Disadvantage of intrinsic feedback
In cognitive stage performer unable to provide the right feedback
What extrinsic feedback
Feedback that comes from external sources
Eg coach’s
+ of extrinsic feedback
Coach can give points that may lead to improvements
negative of extrinsic feedback
Inaccurate feedback could negatively affect performance
What is positive feedback
Reinforces skill learning
Gives info about a successful income
+ of positive feedback
S-R bond formed
Motivation
negatives- of positive feedback
Some performers don’t respond well to praise
What is negative feedback
Info about an unsuccessful outcome
+ of negative feedbacks
Lead to more determined performance
Performer know how to improve
negative- of negative feedback
Can be demotivating
What is knowledge of results (feedback)
Feedback which is external
About result of action.
Advantage of knowledge of results
Motivational
Disadvantage of knowledge of results
Does not explain why action was successful
Can be demotivating
What is knowledge of performance feedback
Info about how well the movement is being executed rather then end result
positives of knowledge of performance
Includes technical information about the performance
negative- of knowledge of performance
Cognitive performers not understand technical info
What is operant conditioning
Skinner’s theory -
associationist
conditioning
trial+ error learning
behaviour shaping
reinforcement-
positive- reward for appropriate behaviour- strengthens SR bond
negative- removal of adverse stimulus- form a new S-R bond
punishment- break or weaken wrong S-R bond- Introduces adverse stimulus
Use of thorndikes laws
Negatives of operant conditioning
trial + error = longer, frustration
-weaker S-R bond when reinforcement taken away too early
-might be more interested in stimulus than actual skill
What is the law of exercise (operant conditioning
more we repeat practise the more we learn - trial and error learning
What is the law of effect (operant conditioning)
more reinforcement = learn more
What is the law of readiness
Only successful if performer is. physically and emotionally mature enough
What is the Cognitive learning theory
Gestaltists theory
Insight learning- problem solving involving memory (previous experiences used to help solve new problems)
thinking and understanding approach
intervening variables ( height of ball, position of players) need to be taken into consideration
Example of a sporting performer using cognitive learning
eg a football player recognising that the pitch is slippy and adapt to play accordingly (less bounce of ball, skidding)
Negatives of cognitive learning
1- requires motivation
2- previous knowledge required to draw from (not for beginners)
What is kinaesthetic sense
The sense of body position and movement of body parts relative to each other
What are motor programs
generalised series of movements stored in the long-term memory
retrieved by a single decision(not conscious)
How to optimise positive effects of transfer
emulate real game situations as much as possible
What is the social learning theory
Bandura
copying behaviour from observing/ watching significant others (role model, loved ones)- trying to fit in (socially acceptable)
significant other = more likely to copy
What are the 3 stages of learning
cognitive
associative
autonomous
What is the cognitive stage of learning
earliest stage, learning motor skills, trial and error, focusing on skill itself (conscious thought) begun to understand the skill
What is the associative stage of learning
practice and begins to develop mental image, apply games and motor programmes formed
Autonomous stage of learning
very little conscious thought, motor programmes formed in long term memory, can focus on tactics
What is effective feedback
limited amount of time spent on one thing- prevent overload
immediacy- should be ASAP so performer can link
related to individual- relate to themselves
facilitating intrinsic feedback kinasethetics allows them to correct their own errors
