2.1: Long-term memory (LTM)

Question 1

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.

Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks)

Answer 1

Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember

Question 2

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.

Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example what?)

Answer 2

Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT)

Question 3

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.

Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT), but what?

Answer 3

Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT), but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time

Question 4

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.

Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT), but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were what?

Answer 4

Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT), but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds

Question 5

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.

Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT), but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
Why was this done?

Answer 5

This was done to prevent rehearsal

Question 6

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.

Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT), but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
What were participants then asked to do?

Answer 6

Participants were then asked to recall the words in the correct order

Question 7

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.

Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT), but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the words in the correct order.
What did the results show?

Answer 7

The results showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds

Question 8

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.

Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT), but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the words in the correct order.
The results showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
What was concluded?

Answer 8

It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it

Question 9

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.

Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT), but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the words in the correct order.
The results showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
What does this study suggest?

Answer 9

This study suggests that the duration of STM is around 18 seconds (can be increased by verbal rehearsal)

Question 10

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.

Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT), but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the words in the correct order.
The results showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
This study suggests that the duration of STM is around 18 seconds (can be increased by verbal rehearsal).

However, what?

Answer 10

However, Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants between 17 and 74 years of age a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends

Question 11

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.

Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT), but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the words in the correct order.
The results showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
This study suggests that the duration of STM is around 18 seconds (can be increased by verbal rehearsal).

However, Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants between 17 and 74 years of age a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends.
What did those who had left high school 48 years previously identify?

Answer 11

Those who had left high school 48 years previously identified 80% of names and 70% of faces

Question 12

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.

Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT), but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the words in the correct order.
The results showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
This study suggests that the duration of STM is around 18 seconds (can be increased by verbal rehearsal).

However, Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants between 17 and 74 years of age a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends.
Those who had left high school 48 years previously identified 80% of names and 70% of faces.
What does this suggest?

Answer 12

This suggests that LTM for faces is long-lasting and also that LTM has a longer and different duration to STM

Question 13

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.

Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
Peterson and Peterson gave participants 3 sets of letters to remember (for example KLT), but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the words in the correct order.
The results showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
This study suggests that the duration of STM is around 18 seconds (can be increased by verbal rehearsal).

However, Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants between 17 and 74 years of age a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends.
Those who had left high school 48 years previously identified 80% of names and 70% of faces.
This suggests that LTM for faces is long-lasting and also that LTM has a longer and different duration to STM (clearly what, for example?)

Answer 13

This suggests that LTM for faces is long-lasting and also that LTM has a longer and different duration to STM (clearly more than 18 seconds, for example)

Question 14

Following a viral infection, Travis suffered damage to his memory.
He was unable to learn new information and could not recall events occurring a short while before.
However, his memory from before his illness was not affected.
For example, he knew that he was married to Lois and he could still play the guitar, an ability learned as a child.

Use the MSM to explain the change in Travis’ memory ability (4 marks)

Answer 14

The multi-store model sees memory as having separate, though connected, short- and long-term memory stores (as well as a sensory memory store)

Question 15

Following a viral infection, Travis suffered damage to his memory.
He was unable to learn new information and could not recall events occurring a short while before.
However, his memory from before his illness was not affected.
For example, he knew that he was married to Lois and he could still play the guitar, an ability learned as a child.

Use the MSM to explain the change in Travis’ memory ability (4 marks).
The multi-store model sees memory as having separate, though connected, short- and long-term memory stores (as well as a sensory memory store).
What his Travis’ illness done?

Answer 15

Travis’ illness has impaired his short-term memory ability

Question 16

Following a viral infection, Travis suffered damage to his memory.
He was unable to learn new information and could not recall events occurring a short while before.
However, his memory from before his illness was not affected.
For example, he knew that he was married to Lois and he could still play the guitar, an ability learned as a child.

Use the MSM to explain the change in Travis’ memory ability (4 marks).
The multi-store model sees memory as having separate, though connected, short- and long-term memory stores (as well as a sensory memory store).
Travis’ illness has impaired his short-term memory ability and so what?

Answer 16

Travis’ illness has impaired his short-term memory ability and so he is unable to transfer information and create new long-term memories

Question 17

Following a viral infection, Travis suffered damage to his memory.
He was unable to learn new information and could not recall events occurring a short while before.
However, his memory from before his illness was not affected.
For example, he knew that he was married to Lois and he could still play the guitar, an ability learned as a child.

Use the MSM to explain the change in Travis’ memory ability (4 marks).
The multi-store model sees memory as having separate, though connected, short- and long-term memory stores (as well as a sensory memory store).
Travis’ illness has impaired his short-term memory ability and so he is unable to transfer information and create new long-term memories.
This is why he can’t do what?

Answer 17

This is why he can’t recall events that occurred a short while before

Question 18

Following a viral infection, Travis suffered damage to his memory.
He was unable to learn new information and could not recall events occurring a short while before.
However, his memory from before his illness was not affected.
For example, he knew that he was married to Lois and he could still play the guitar, an ability learned as a child.

Use the MSM to explain the change in Travis’ memory ability (4 marks).
The multi-store model sees memory as having separate, though connected, short- and long-term memory stores (as well as a sensory memory store).
Travis’ illness has impaired his short-term memory ability and so he is unable to transfer information and create new long-term memories.
This is why he can’t recall events that occurred a short while before.
What does he know?

Answer 18

He knows he is married to Lois and he knows how to play the guitar

Question 19

Following a viral infection, Travis suffered damage to his memory.
He was unable to learn new information and could not recall events occurring a short while before.
However, his memory from before his illness was not affected.
For example, he knew that he was married to Lois and he could still play the guitar, an ability learned as a child.

Use the MSM to explain the change in Travis’ memory ability (4 marks).
The multi-store model sees memory as having separate, though connected, short- and long-term memory stores (as well as a sensory memory store).
Travis’ illness has impaired his short-term memory ability and so he is unable to transfer information and create new long-term memories.
This is why he can’t recall events that occurred a short while before.
He knows he is married to Lois, why, and he knows how to play the guitar?

Answer 19

He knows he is married to Lois, as this is an episodic long-term memory, and he knows how to play the guitar

Question 20

Following a viral infection, Travis suffered damage to his memory.
He was unable to learn new information and could not recall events occurring a short while before.
However, his memory from before his illness was not affected.
For example, he knew that he was married to Lois and he could still play the guitar, an ability learned as a child.

Use the MSM to explain the change in Travis’ memory ability (4 marks).
The multi-store model sees memory as having separate, though connected, short- and long-term memory stores (as well as a sensory memory store).
Travis’ illness has impaired his short-term memory ability and so he is unable to transfer information and create new long-term memories.
This is why he can’t recall events that occurred a short while before.
He knows he is married to Lois, as this is an episodic long-term memory, and he knows how to play the guitar, why?

Answer 20

He knows he is married to Lois, as this is an episodic long-term memory, and he knows how to play the guitar, as this is a procedural long-term memory

Question 21

Following a viral infection, Travis suffered damage to his memory.
He was unable to learn new information and could not recall events occurring a short while before.
However, his memory from before his illness was not affected.
For example, he knew that he was married to Lois and he could still play the guitar, an ability learned as a child.

Use the MSM to explain the change in Travis’ memory ability (4 marks).
The multi-store model sees memory as having separate, though connected, short- and long-term memory stores (as well as a sensory memory store).
Travis’ illness has impaired his short-term memory ability and so he is unable to transfer information and create new long-term memories.
This is why he can’t recall events that occurred a short while before.
He knows he is married to Lois, as this is an episodic long-term memory, and he knows how to play the guitar, as this is a procedural long-term memory.
Where are long-term memories processed?

Answer 21

Long-term memories are processed in a different brain area that has not been affected by his illness

Question 22

Research studies of the MSM are often conducted by laboratory experiments.
Give a brief explanation of one strength and one limitation of laboratory experiments (4 marks)

Answer 22

One strength of laboratory experiments is that they are conducted under controlled conditions

Question 23

Research studies of the MSM are often conducted by laboratory experiments.
Give a brief explanation of one strength and one limitation of laboratory experiments (4 marks).
One strength of laboratory experiments is that they are conducted under controlled conditions.
What does this allow?

Answer 23

This allows a researcher to see the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable

Question 24

Research studies of the MSM are often conducted by laboratory experiments.
Give a brief explanation of one strength and one limitation of laboratory experiments (4 marks).
One strength of laboratory experiments is that they are conducted under controlled conditions.
This allows a researcher to see the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, thus doing what?

Answer 24

This allows a researcher to see the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, thus permitting causality (cause-and-effect relationships) to be established

Question 25

Research studies of the MSM are often conducted by laboratory experiments.
Give a brief explanation of one strength and one limitation of laboratory experiments (4 marks).
One strength of laboratory experiments is that they are conducted under controlled conditions.
This allows a researcher to see the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, thus permitting causality (cause-and-effect relationships) to be established.

One limitation

Answer 25

One limitation is that laboratory experiments lack ecological validity

Question 26

Research studies of the MSM are often conducted by laboratory experiments.
Give a brief explanation of one strength and one limitation of laboratory experiments (4 marks).
One strength of laboratory experiments is that they are conducted under controlled conditions.
This allows a researcher to see the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, thus permitting causality (cause-and-effect relationships) to be established.

One limitation is that laboratory experiments lack ecological validity.
What does this mean?

Answer 26

This means they are conducted under artificial conditions

Question 27

Research studies of the MSM are often conducted by laboratory experiments.
Give a brief explanation of one strength and one limitation of laboratory experiments (4 marks).
One strength of laboratory experiments is that they are conducted under controlled conditions.
This allows a researcher to see the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, thus permitting causality (cause-and-effect relationships) to be established.

One limitation is that laboratory experiments lack ecological validity.
This means they are conducted under artificial conditions, meaning what?

Answer 27

This means they are conducted under artificial conditions, meaning that findings cannot be generalised to real-life settings

Question 28

Memory studies are sometimes criticised for being unrealistic.
Briefly explain two ways that this criticism could be addressed in memory research (4 marks)

Answer 28

One way is that researchers could use environments that are natural for participants when learning and recalling information

Question 29

Memory studies are sometimes criticised for being unrealistic.
Briefly explain two ways that this criticism could be addressed in memory research (4 marks).
One way is that researchers could use environments that are natural for participants, such as what, when learning and recalling information?

Answer 29

One way is that researchers could use environments that are natural for participants, such as school classrooms, when learning and recalling information

Question 30

Memory studies are sometimes criticised for being unrealistic.
Briefly explain two ways that this criticism could be addressed in memory research (4 marks).
One way is that researchers could use environments that are natural for participants, such as school classrooms, when learning and recalling information.

Another way

Answer 30

Another way is that researchers could ensure that the task are everyday tasks for their participants

Question 31

Memory studies are sometimes criticised for being unrealistic.
Briefly explain two ways that this criticism could be addressed in memory research (4 marks).
One way is that researchers could use environments that are natural for participants, such as school classrooms, when learning and recalling information.

Another way is that researchers could ensure that the task are everyday tasks for their participants, such as what?

Answer 31

Another way is that researchers could ensure that the task are everyday tasks for their participants, such as learning definitions if they are student participants

Question 32

The multi-store model of memory has been criticised in many ways. The following example illustrates a possible criticism.
Some students read through their revision notes lots of times before an examination, but still find it difficult to remember the information. However, the same students can remember the information in a celebrity magazine, even though they read it only once.
Explain why this can be used as a criticism of the multi-store model of memory (4 marks)

Answer 32

Mere rehearsal is too simple a process to account for the transfer of information from STM to LTM.
Even though students rehearse the information, it doesn’t transfer from STM to LTM as predicted by the model

Question 33

The multi-store model of memory has been criticised in many ways. The following example illustrates a possible criticism.
Some students read through their revision notes lots of times before an examination, but still find it difficult to remember the information. However, the same students can remember the information in a celebrity magazine, even though they read it only once.
Explain why this can be used as a criticism of the multi-store model of memory (4 marks).
Mere rehearsal is too simple a process to account for the transfer of information from STM to LTM.
Even though students rehearse the information, it doesn’t transfer from STM to LTM as predicted by the model.

Answer 33

The type of information is also important in whether it is recalled or not

Question 34

The multi-store model of memory has been criticised in many ways. The following example illustrates a possible criticism.
Some students read through their revision notes lots of times before an examination, but still find it difficult to remember the information. However, the same students can remember the information in a celebrity magazine, even though they read it only once.
Explain why this can be used as a criticism of the multi-store model of memory (4 marks).
Mere rehearsal is too simple a process to account for the transfer of information from STM to LTM.
Even though students rehearse the information, it doesn’t transfer from STM to LTM as predicted by the model.
The type of information is also important in whether it is recalled or not.

Answer 34

However, information in the magazine is only presented once, but it does transfer to LTM, despite lack of rehearsal