2- movement of substances in and out of cells and nutrition in plants and humans Flashcards
diffusion
the movement of molecules from a region of its higher concentration to a region of its lower concentration
molecules move down a concentration gradient as a result of
their random movement
diffusion helps living organisms-
obtain many of their requirements, get rid of waste products, carry out gas exchange for respiration
diffusion in small intestine
digested food products from limen of small intestine to blood/lymph in villi found covering small intestine walls
diffusion in a leaf- oxygen
oxygen moving from air space between mesophyll cells to mitochondria in all cells
diffusion in leaf- carbon dioxide
carbon dioxide moving from air spaces between mesophyll cells to chloroplasts in mesophyll cells
diffusion in leaf- water vapour
water vapour moves from stomatal pores to air outside stomata
diffusion in lungs- oxygen
oxygen moves from alveolar air space to blood in capillaries around alveoli
diffusion in lungs- carbon dioxide
carbon dioxide moves from blood in capillaries around alveoli to alveolar air space
difference in concentration gradient affect on diffusion
the greater the difference in concentration between two regions the faster the overall rate of diffusion because the higher concentration the more random collisions against the membrane will occur
temperature affect on diffusion
the higher the temperature the more kinetic energy the particles of that substance will have so they move and spread faster compared to when at a lower temp and they have less kinetic energy
surface area affect on diffusion
a membrane with a greater surface area will have a greater rate of diffusion
rate of diffusion is influenced by
temperature, surface area, concentration gradient, diffusion distance
how can you investigate the temperature affect on diffusion
by using beetroot as it contains a dark purple-red pigment and heating above 45°c can damage the membrane meaning that the pigment can leak out so the speed at which this pigment leaks out of the cell tells us about the rate of diffusion
apparatus needed to investigate the effect of temperature on diffusion
beetroot, knife, cutting board, ruler, test tube, water bath, stopwatch
method to investigate the effect of temperature on diffusion
1) using a knife cut 2 equally sized cubes of beetroot, they have to be the same dimensions so they all have equal surface area/volume as these factors could affect the rate at which the pigment leaks out
2) rinse the beetroot to remove any pigments that is released during cutting
3) put 5cm3 of water into 2 test tubes labled A and B
4) keep test tube A at room temperature and then transfer test tube B a hot water bath at 90 degrees c
5) leave the test tubes fir 2 minutes then add a piece of beetroot into each tube
6) after 10 minutes observe the colour of the liquid in both test tubes
results and analysis of investigating temperature affect on diffusion
you should notice that the higher temperature more of the pigment has leaked out because the cell membrane of the beetroot cells has become damaged so more pigment can leak out. at a higher temperature particles have more kinetic energy so this results in faster movement of particles compared to when they have less energy
limitations of investigating temperature affect on diffusion
the beetroot pieces may not be identical in size and shape meaning one test tube could have slightly more beetroot tissue than the other - the solution to this is cut the beetroot as accurately as possible using a knife and ruler and repeat each investigation several times to find a mean
some parts of the beetroot tissue could have more pigment in their cells than others- solution is conduct several repeats using different parts of the beetroot and find a mean
our results would be more reliable if we tested a range of temperatures rather than just two- solution is to set up 5 test tubes in water baths at different temperatures ( etc 10-50 going up in 10s)
observing colour can be very subjective which means it is difficult to compare the differences in diffusion between test tubes- solution use a colorimeter to measure how much light is absorbed as it passes through each of the five samples of coloured liquid
corms investigation for investigating temperature affect on diffusion
c- we are changing the temperature of the environment
o- the beetroot cubes will all be taken from the same beetroot or beetroot of the same age
r- we will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
m- we will observe the colour change of the liquid after 10 minutes
s- we will control the volume of water used, the dimensions of the beetroot cubes and each cube must be blotted before it is weighed each time
water can move in and out of cells by
osmosis
all cells are surrounded by
a partially permeable cell membrane
osmosis
the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane
osmosis is water moving down a
concentration gradient
the cell is partially permeable which means it allows
small molecules (like water) through but not the larger molecules (like solute molecules)
animal cells lose and gain water as a result of
osmosis
if an animal cell is placed in a solution with a lower water potential than the cell
it will lose water by osmosis and become crenated (shrivelled up)
if an animal cell is placed into distilled water with a higher water potential than the cell
it will gain water by osmosis as it has no cell wall to create turgor pressure
plant cells lose and gain water as a result of
osmosis
as plants have a cell wall they are protected from
cell lysis
if a plant cell is placed in a strong sugar solution (with a water potential lower than the cell)
it will lose water by osmosis and the vacuole gets smaller and the cell membrane shrivels away from the cell wall and it becomes flaccid or plasmolysed
if a plant cell is put in distilled water (higher water potential than the cell)
it will gain water by osmosis and the vacuole gets bigger, pushing the cell membrane against the cells wall and the cell becomes turgid due to the high turgor pressure caused by the cytoplasm pushing against the cell wall
water entering a cell by osmosis makes the cell
rigid and firm
why is it important for the cell to become rigid and firm after water has entered the cell by osmosis
because when a plant cell is firm it provides support and strength for the plant- making the plant stand upright with its leaves held out to catch sunlight
what happens if a plant doesn’t get enough water
the cells can’t become rigid and firm (turgid) and the plant will wilt
how can we investigate osmosis
using cylinders of potato and placing them in distilled water and sucrose solutions of increasing concentration
apparatus needed to investigate osmosis
potatoes, cork borer, knife, sucrose solution, test tube, balance, paper towels, ruler, test tube rack
method to investigate osmosis
1) prepare a range of sucrose (sugar) solutions raging from 0 mol/dm3 (distilled water) to 1 mol/dm3
2) set up 6 labelled test tubes with 10cm3 of each of the sucrose solutions
3) using the knife, cork borer and ruler, cut 6 equally sized cylinders of potato
4) blot each one with a paper towel and weigh on the balance
5) put 1 piece into each concentration of sucrose solution
6) after 4 hours remove them, blot with paper towels and reweigh them
results and analysis of investigating osmosis
the percentage change in mass can be calculated for each piece of potato by using the equation
((final mass-initial mass)/initial mass) x 100
the potato cylinder in the distilled water will of increased its mass the most because there is a greater concentration gradient in this tube between the distilled water (high water potential) and the potato cells (low water potential). this means more water molecules will move into potato cells by osmosis, pushing the cell membrane against the cell wall and so increasing the turgor pressure in the cells and making them more turgid. the potato cylinder in the strongest sucrose concentration will, have decreased its mass the most as there is a greater concentration gradient in this tube between potato cells (higher water potential) and the sucrose solution (low water potential). this means more water molecules will move out of potato cells by osmosis making them flaccid and decreasing the mass of the cylinder.
what if there is a potato cylinder that has not increased or decreased in mass
if there’s a potato cylinder which hasnt increased or decreased in mass it means there was a no overall net movement of water in or out of the potato cells. this is because the solution that the cylinder was in was the same concentration as the solution found in the cytoplasm of the potato cells so there was no concentration gradient.
limitations to investigation osmosis
slight differences in potato cylinders may mean that results aren’t reliable or comparable- solution is for each sucrose concentration , repeat the investigation with several potato cylinders making a series of repeat experiments means that any anomalous results can be identified and ignored when a mean is calculated
corms for investigating osmosis
c- we are changing the concentration of sucrose solution
o- the potato cylinders will all be taken from the same potato or potatoes of the same age
r- we will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
m- we will measure the change in mass of potato cylinders after 4 hours
s- we will control the volume of sucrose solution used, the dimensions of the potato cylinders and each cylinder must be blotted before it is weighed each time
active transport
the movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration using energy from respiration
energy is needed in active transport because
particles are being moved against a concentration gradient in the opposite direction from which they would naturally move (by diffusion)
active transport across the cell membrane involves
protein carrier molecules embedded in the cell membrane
active transport in animals allows molecules
such as glucose to be transported into the blood stream from the lumen off the small intestine (the gut) when the concentration of sugar molecules in the blood is higher
photosynthesis- endothermic or exothermic?
endothermic because energy from sun light is transferred to the chloroplasts in green plants
photosynthesis
the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light
what do plants use glucose as
a source of energy in respiration
what other things can plants use glucose for
produce starch, synthesise lipids into energy sources, to form cellulose to make cell walls, produce amino acids
photosynthesis wird equation
carbon dioxide + water -> glucose + oxygen
photosynthesis chemical equation
6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 +6O2
limiting factor
something present in the environment in such short supply that it restricts life processes
main factors to limit the rate of photosynthesis
temperature, light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration
increasing temperature affect on photosynthesis
increasing temperature increases kinetic energy of particles, increasing the likelihood of collisions between reactants and enzymes which results in more product. however at high temperature enzymes that control the processes of photosynthesis can be denatured and this reduces the overall rate of photosynthesis
denatured
where the active site changes shape and is no longer complementary to its substrate
more light intensity on photosynthesis
the more light intensity the more photosynthesis
carbon dioxide affect on photosynthesis
more carbon dioxide the more photosynthesis
the more chloroplasts a plant has…
the more photosynthesis occurs because then more light can be absorbed
amount of chorophyll can be affected by
disease, level of nutrients, loss of leaves
wax cuticle
protective layer on top of the leaf which prevents water from evaporating
upper epidermis
thin and transparent to allow light to enter palisade mesophyll later underneath
palisade mesophyll
column shaped cells tightly packed with chloroplasts to absorb more light, maximising photosynthesis
spongy mesophyll
contains internal air spaces that increases the surface area to volume ratio for the diffusion of gases mainly carbon dioxide
lower epidermis
contains guard cells and stomata
guard cells
absorbs and loses water to open and close the stomata to allow carbon dioxide to diffuse in and oxygen to diffuse out
stomata
where gas exchange takes place. opens during the day and closes during the night. evaporation of waster takes place here. in most plants its found in a much greater concentration on the underside of the leaf to reduce water loss
vascular bundle
contains xylem and phloem to transport substances to and from the leaf
xylem
transports water into the leaf for mesophyll cells to use in photosynthesis and for transpiration from stomata
phloem
transports sucrose and amino acids around the plant
large surface are on a plant and how its adapted for photosynthesis
increases surface area for diffusion of carbon dioxide and absorption of light for photosynthesis
plants are thin- adaptation for photosynthesis
allows carbon dioxide to diffuse to palisade mesophyll cells quickly
chlorophyll on leaves- adaption for photosynthesis
absorbs carbon dioxide to diffuse to palisade mesophyll cells quickly
network of veins- adaptation for photosynthesis
allows the transport of water to the cells of the leaf and carbohydrates from the leaf for photosynthesis
stomata- adaptation for photosynthesis
allows carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf and oxygen to diffuse out
epidermis is thin and transparent- adaptation for photosynthesis
allows more light to reach the palisade cells
thin cuticle made of wax- adaptation for photosynthesis
to protect the leaf without blocking sunlight
palisade cell layer at top of leaf- adaptation for photosynthesis
maximises the absorption of light as it will hit chloroplasts in the cells directly
spongy layer- adaptation for photosynthesis
air spaces allow carbon dioxide to diffuse through the leaf, increasing the surface area
vascular bundles- adaptation for photosynthesis
thick cell walls of the tissue in the bundles help to support the stem and leaf
magnesium mineral ion function in plant
magnesium is needed to make chlorophyll
magnesium mineral ion deficiency in plant
causes yellowing between the veins of leaves (chlorosis)
nitrate mineral ion function in plant
nitrates are a source of nitrogen needed to make amino acids (to build proteins)
nitrate mineral ion deficiency in plant
causes stunted growth and yellowing leaves
how to demonstrate the evolution of oxygen
using water plants such as elodea or camboba (types of pondweed)
as photosynthesis occurs
oxygen gas produced is released
how can oxygen released be seen when a plant is in water
as bubbles leaving the cut end of the pondweed
apparatus needed to investigate photosynthesis
beaker, water plant, funnel, boiling tube, splint, Bunsen burner, heat proof mat
method for investigating photosynthesis
1) take a bundle of shoots of a water plant
2) submerge them in a beaker of water underneath an upturned funnel
3) fill a boiling tube with water and place it over the end of the funnel
4) as oxygen is produced the bubbles of gas will collect in the boiling tube and displace the water
results and analysis of investigating photosynthesis
you can show that the gas collected is oxygen by relighting a glowing splint
why can’t leaves be tested for glucose presence
as glucose is produced it is quickly used up and converted into other substances and then transported or stored as starch
starch is stored in the chloroplasts where photosynthesis occurs so
testing a leaf for starch is a reliable indicator of which parts of the leaf are photosynthesising
apparatus needed to investigate light and photosynthesis
beakers, leaf tissue, Bunsen burners, tripod, gauze platform, prongs, ethanol, apron, safety goggles, gloves, iodine solution, white tile
method to investigate light and photosynthesis
1) destarch the plant by placing it in a dark cupboard for 24 hours- this ensures that any starch already present will be used up and not affect the results of the experiment.
2) following the destarch partially cover the leaf of a plant with aluminium foil and place in the sunlight for a day
3) remove the covered leaf and test for starch by-
1) dropping the leaf in boiling water to break down the cell walls and kill the tissue
2) transfer the leaf into hot ethanol in a boiling tube for 5-10 minutes as this removes the chlorophyll so colour changes from iodine can be seen more clearly
3) dip the leaf into boiling water
4) spread the leaf out on a white tile and cover it with iodine solution
results and analysis of investigating light and photosynthesis
in a green leaf, the entire leaf will turn blue-black as photosynthesis is occurring in all areas of the leaf. the area of the leaf that was covered with aluminium foil will remain orange-brown as it did not receive any sunlight and could not photosynthesise while the area exposed to light could. this proves that light is necessary for photosynthesis and the production of starch
safety when investigating light and photosynthesis
ethanol is extremely flammable so when this stage of the experiment is happening the Bunsen burner should be turned off. to heat the ethanol use a water bath
corms for investigating light and photosynthesis
c- we are changing whether there is light or no light
o- the leaves will be taken from the same plant or the same species, age and size of the plant
r- we will repeat the investigation several times to ensure the results are reliable
m- we will observe the colour change of the leaf when iodine is applied after one day
s- we will control the temperature of the room
apparatus to investigate carbon dioxide and photosynthesis
conical flasks, potassium hydroxide solution, clamps, clamp stands, a plant, beakers, Bunsen burner, tripod, gauze platform, prongs, ethanol, apron, safety goggles, gloves, iodine solution, white tile
method to investigate carbon dioxide and photosynthesis
1) destarch the plant by putting it in a dark cupboard for 24 hours
2) following the destarch enclose one leaf with a conical flask containing potassium hydroxide- the potassium hydroxide will absorb carbon dioxide from the surrounding air
3) enclose another leaf with a conical flask containing no potassium hydroxide
4) place the plant in a bright light for several hours
5) test both leaves for starch using iodine solution
results for investigating carbon dioxide and photosynthesis
the leaf from the conical flask containing potassium hydroxide will remain orange-brown as it could not photosynthesise due to lack of carbon dioxide. the leaf from the conical flask not containing potassium hydroxide should turn blue-black as it had all necessary requirements for photosynthesis
corms for investigating carbon dioxide and photosynthesis
c- we are changing whether there is a carbon dioxide or no carbon dioxide
o- the leaves will be taken from the same plant or same species, age, and size of plant
r- we will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
m- we will observe the colour change of the leaf when iodine is applied after 1 day
s- we will control the temperature of the room and the light intensity
apparatus to investigate chlorophyll and photosynthesis
beakers, leaf tissues, Bunsen burner, tripod, gauze platform, prongs, ethanol, apron, safety goggles, gloves, iodine solution, white tile
method to investigate chlorophyll and photosynthesis
1) drop the leaf in boiling water
2) transfer the leaf into hot ethanol in a boiling tube for 5-10 minutes
3) dip the leaf in boiling water
4) spread the leaf out on a white tile and cover with iodine solution
results and analysis of investigating chlorophyll and photosynthesis
the white areas of the leaf contain no chlorophyll and when the leaf is tested only the areas that contain chlorophyll strain blue-black. the areas that had no chlorophyll remain orange-black as no photosynthesis is occurring here and so no starch is stored
corms for investigating chlorophyll and photosynthesis
c- we are changing whether there is chlorophyll or not
o- the leaves will be taken from the same plant or same species, age, and size of the plant
r- we will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
m- we will observe the colour change of the leaf when iodine is applied after one day
s- we will control the temperature of the room and the light intensity
a balanced diet consists of
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, dietary fibre, vitamins, minerals, water
carbohydrate function and source
source of energy and can be found in bread, cereal, pasta, rice, potatoes
protein function and source
growth and repair found in meat, fish, eggs, pulses and nuts
lipid function and source
insulation and energy storage found in butter, oil and nuts
dietary fibre function and source
provides bulk for the intestine to push food through it found in vegetables and whole grains
vitamins function and source
needed in small quantities to maintain health found in fruits and veg
minerals function and source
needed in small quantities to maintain health found in fruits and veg, meats, dairy products
water function and source
needed for chemical reactions to take place in cells, found in water, juice, milk, fruits and vegetables
calcium function and sources
needed for strong teeth and bones and involved in the clotting of blood. deficiency can lead to osteoporosis later in life. found in milk, cheese and eggs
vitamin D function and source
helps the body to absorb calcium and so require for strong bones and teeth. found in oily fish, dairy products, also made naturally by the body in sunlight
vitamin c function and source
form essential parts of collagen protein which makes up skin, hair, gums and bones. deficiency causes scurvy. found in citrus fruits, strawberries and green vegetables
vitamin a function and source
needed to make the pigment in the retina for vision. found in meat, liver, dairy, leafy green veg, eggs
iron function and source
needed to make haemoglobin, the pigment in red blood cells that transports oxygen. can be found in red meat, liver, leafy green veg
age- dietary needs
the amount of energy that young people need increases towards adulthood as this energy is needed for growth. children need a higher proportion of protein in their diet than adults as this is required for growth. energy needs in adults decrease as they grow
activity levels- dietary needs
the more active someone is the more energy required for movement as muscles are contracting more and respiring faster
pregnancy- dietary needs
during pregnancy energy requirements increase as energy is needed to support the growth of the developing foetus, as well as the larger mass that the mother needs to carry around. extra calcium and iron are also needed in the diet to help build bones, teeth and blood of the foetus
breast feeding- dietary needs
energy requirements increase and extra calcium still needed to make high quality breast milk
gender/sex- dietary needs
men average energy requirements tend to exceed that of females due to them having a larger proportion of muscle compared to fat
the digestive system is an example of
an organ system in which several organs work together to digest and absorb food
digestion is a process in which
relatively large, insoluble molecules in food are broken down into smaller, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream and delivered to cells in the body
small soluble molecules are used to either
provide cells with energy or with materials with which they can build other molecules to grow, repair and function
the human digestive system is made up of
the organs that form the alimentary canal and accessory organs
the alimentary canal is
the channel or passage through which food flows through the body, starting at the mouth and ending at the anus
digestion occurs within
the alimentary canal
accessory organs to digestion produce
substances that are needed for digestion to occur (such and enzymes and bile) but food does not pass directly through these organs
mouth/salivary glands
the mouth is where mechanical digestion takes place- teeth chew food to break it down to increase its surface area to volume ratio. amylase enzymes in saliva start digesting starch into maltose. the food is shaped into a ball by the tongue and lubricated in saliva so it can be swallowed easily
oesophagus
tube that connects the mouth to the stomach where the food bolus goes after being swallowed. wave-like contractions will take place to push the food bolus down without relying on gravity
stomach
food is mechanically digested by churning actions while protease enzymes start to chemically digest proteins. hydrochloric acid is present to kill bacteria in foods and provide the optimum ph for protease enzymes to work
small intestine (duodenum)
there first section of the small intestine is called the duodenum and it is where the food coming out of the stomach finishes being digested by enzymes produced here and also recreated from the pancreas- ph of the small intestine is slightly alkaline so around ph 8-9
small intestine (ileum)
the second section of the small intestine is called the ileum. and where the absorption of digested food molecules take place. the ileum is long and lined with villi to increase the surface area over which absorption can take place
large intestine
water is absorbed from remaining material in the colon to produce faeces. faeces is stored in the rectum and removed through the anus
pancreas
produces all three types of digestive enzyme- amylase, protease and lipase. secretes enzymes in an alkaline fluid into the duodenum for digestion to raise the ph of fluid coming out of the stomach
liver
produces bile to emulsify fats (breaks large droplets into smaller droplets)- an example of mechanical digestion. amino acids not used to make proteins break down here (deamination) which produces urea
gall bladder
stores bile to release into duodenum as required
ingestion
the taking in of substance
mechanical digestion
the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to the food molecules
chemical digestion
the breakdown of large, in soluble molecules into small, soluble molecules
absorption
the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine into the blood
assimilation
the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they are used, becoming part of the cells
egestion
the passing out of food that has not been digested out absorbed through the anus
how does peristalsis work
firstly muscles in the walls of the oesophagus create waves of contractions which force the bolus along. once the bolus has reached the stomach, it is churned into a less solid form, called chyme, which continues on to the small intestine
peristalsis is controlled by
circular and longitudinal muscles. circular muscles contract to reduce the diameter of the lumen of the oesophagus or small intestine. longitudinal muscles contract to reduce the length of that section the oesophagus or the small intestine
mucus is produced to
continually lubricate the food mass and reduce friction
dietary fibre provides
the roughage required for the muscles to push against during peristalsis
digestion mainly takes place
chemically where bonds holding the large molecules together are broken to make smaller and smaller molecules
chemical digestion is controlled by
enzymes which are produced in different areas of the digestive system
enzymes are
biological catalysts- they sped up chemical reactions without themselves being used up or changed in the reaction
types of digestive enzymes
carbohydrases, proteases and lipases
carbohydrases are
enzymes that break down carbohydrates to simple sugars such as glucose
amylase is a
carbohydrase which is made in the salivary glands, the pancreas, and the small intestine
amylase breaks down
starch to maltose
maltase breaks down
maltose to glucose
proteases are
a group of enzymes that break down proteins into amino acids
pepsin is an
enzyme made in the stomach which breaks down proteins into smaller polypeptide chains
proteases made in
the pancreas and small intestine break the peptides into amino acids
lipases are
enzymes that break down lipids to glycerol and fatty acids
lipase enzymes are produced
in the pancreas and secreted into the small intestine
bile is
an alkaline substance produced by cells in the liver
bile is stored
in the gallbladder before being released into the small intestine
bile main roles
neutralising the hydrochloric acid in the stomach- the alkaline properties of bile allow for this to occur. the neutralisation is essential as enzymes in the small intestine have a higher (more alkaline) optimum ph than those in the stomach
breaking apart large drops of fat into smaller ones- and so increasing surface are. this is known as emulsification
the more alkaline conditions and larger surface area
allows lipase to chemically break down the fat (lipids) molecules into glycerol and fatty acids at a faster rate
absorption
the movement of small digested food molecules from the digested system in to the blood (glucose and amino acids) and lymph (fatty acids and glycerol)
absorption of small molecules occur through
diffusion and sometimes active transport
water is absorbed primarily
in the small intestine but also in the colon by osmosis
after absorption
assimilation and digestion occurs
how is the small intestine adapted for absorption
as it is very long and has highly folded surface with millions of villi. these adaptions massively increase the surface area of the small intestine, allowing absorption to take place faster and more efficiently
adaptions of the villi which allow for the rapid absorption of substances
a large surface area- microvilli on the surface of the villus further increase the surface available for absorption
a short diffusion distance- the wall of a villus is only one cell thick
a steep concentration gradient- the villi are well supplied with a network of blood capillaries that transport glucose and amino acids away from the small intestine in the blood. a lacteal runs through the centre of the villus too transport fatty acids and glycerol away from the small intestine in the lymph. enzymes produced in the walls of the villi assist with chemical digestion. the movement of villi helps to move food along and mix with enzymes present
