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1001 Biology > 2. Aerobic health > Flashcards

2. Aerobic health Flashcards

1
Q

Human Circulatory System

A

= circulates blood and lymph through body consisting of heart blood vessels, blood lymph and lymphatic vessels/glands

= humans have a closed circulatory system.

  • physically separated from the rest of the body
  • Consists of vessels and a pump
  • Humans have a double circulatory system as our heart is divided completely into right and left sides
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2
Q

In which direction from the heart does an Artery and venous go?

A

artery = Carries AWAY from the heart

Venous = Returns blood to the heart

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3
Q

The heart

A

= generates a pressure to forces blood continuously around the body

  • composed predominantly of cardiac muscle
  • One way flow
  • Left side is more muscular as it pumps blood all around the body
  • right side only pumps to the lungs
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4
Q

Structure of the heart?

A

Right Atrium = receives blood from the superior and inferior vena cava and the coronary sinus

Right Ventricle = receives blood from the right atrium and sends blood to the lungs

Left atrium = Receives blood from the pulmonary veins

Left ventricle = Receives blood from the left atrium and sends blood all over the body.
- wall of left ventricle is much thicker than the right as it pumps oxygenated blood all over the body rather than just to the lungs.

  • ventricles produce high pressures and are discharging chambers that push the blood back out of the heart
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5
Q

What is the structure and function of the pericardium?

A

= Sac like structure with two layers.

  • keeps the heart contained in the chest cavity
  • prevents the heart from over-expanding when blood volume increases
  • limits heart motion
  • pericardial fluid reduces friction between the two membranes of the serous pericardium.
  1. Fibrous pericardium = tough, fibrous sac
  2. Serous pericardium = parietal lay and visceral layer (epicardium)
  3. Pericardial cavity = in-between the 2 layers of the serous pericardium and contains pericardial fluid
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6
Q

What are the layers of the heart wall?

A
  1. Epicardium = outer
  2. Myocardium = muscle
  3. Endocardium = inner
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7
Q

Explain the three blood vessels?

A

Artery

  • can withstand pressure
  • elastic wall enable to absorb pressure
  • can alter in diameter due to blood pressure and environmental changes
  • carry blood away from the heart

Capillaries
- microscopic vessels that connect to arterioles and
venule’s
- single layer walls allow for nutrients and waste to
exchange between blood and cells

Veins

  • several venules
  • carry deoxygenated blood
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8
Q

Heart as a muscle?

A

= cardiac muscle contraction

  • myocardium muscles that contracts through process of
    sliding filaments

Intercalated discs unique structural formations found between the myocardial cells of the heart.

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9
Q

what are Intercalated discs?

A

= unique structural formations found between the myocardial cells of the heart that contain 2 cell junctions:

  1. Desmosomes = hold fibre structures together so heart doesn’t pull apart.
  2. Gap Junctions = allows electric pulse to move cell to cell so the heart beats are synchronised.
    - they enable the myocardium to behave as a single coordinated unit
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10
Q

The Conduction system

A
  • cardiac muscles auto rhythmic
  • cardiac muscles repeatedly generate spontaneous action potentials that then trigger heart contractions
    = the conduction system
  • Resting state - intracellular fluid is more negatively charged then extracellular
  • Cells are polarised when electrically stimulated by another cell
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11
Q

Repolarisation vs Depolarisation

A

REpolarisation = Relaxing (setting back to start)

Depolarisation = electrical activation of myocardium
- contracting - going off or doing something

ECG = sum total of electrical charges of individual cells

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12
Q

Cardiac Cycle

A
  • one cycle consists of contraction and relaxation of both atrias followed by systole and diastole of both ventricles.

Electrical event = depolarising or repolarising

Mechanical event = what is physically happening to the heart.

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13
Q

Influences of the conductive system?

A

SA node = natural pacemaker
- autorhythmic fibres initiate action potentials most often

Neurotransmitters and hormones from sympathetic nervous system can modify the heart rate and force contractions.

Cardiac muscles generate ATP mainly by aerobic metabolism.

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14
Q

Electrical and mechanical events of an ECG wave

A

ECG Electrical Mechanical

P Atrial Depolarisation Atrial contraction

QRS Ventricular depolarisation Ventricular contraction

T. Ventricular repolarisation Ventricular relaxation

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15
Q

Describe the sequence of excitation during cardiac conduction.

A
  • SA node
  • through atria - causing atrial contraction
  • AV node
  • AV bundle
  • R and L bundle branches
  • Purkinje fibres - causes ventricular contraction
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16
Q

What is coronary circulation?

A

= blood flow to the heart

  • delivers oxygen to heart muscles
  • left and right coronary artery
  • coronary artery = delivers oxygenated blood and nutrients to the heart.
  • coronary veins remove CO2 and wasted from myocardium

LEARN PICTURE

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17
Q

Stroke Volume?

A

Stroke volume is thee amount of blood pumped out of a ventricle in ONE PUMP.

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18
Q

What is Cardiac output?

A

= is the volume of blood ejected from left or right ventricle into aorta EACH MINUET.

CO = stroke volume ml/b X Heart rate (bpm)

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19
Q

Regulation of Stroke Volume (3 factors)

A
  1. Preload
    = amount ventricles are stretched by contained blood
    prior to contraction
  2. Afterload
    = force at which heart has to contract to eject blood
  3. Contractibility
    = ability to self contract
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20
Q

What are Heart Valves?

A

= control flow of blood through heart preventing back flow
- controlled by pressure differences

Tricuspid, Pulmonary, Mitral, Aortic valve

Murmor = faulty blood flow in heart

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21
Q

What is Blood pressure and what is affected by?

A

= the pressure exerted by the blood against the walls of the arteries

affected by:

  • cardiac output
  • peripheral resistance
  • Viscosity and blood volume

Blood Pressure is determined by Cardiac output and Vascular resistance

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22
Q

What is Vascular resistance (R)?

A

= the opposition to blood flow due to friction between blood and walls of vessels.

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23
Q

What is venous return?

A

= the volume of blood flowing back to heart through systemic veins occurs due to the pressure generated by contractions fo the hearts left ventricle.

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24
Q

Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)

A

= how much O2 is getting into tissues.

  • valve is important because it is the difference between MAP and venous pressure that drives blood through capillaries of organs.
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25
The Respiratory system
Breathing and respiratory: - Respiration is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere, blood and cell. Combination of 3 processes is required for respiration to occur: 1. Ventilation (breathing) 2. External (pulmonary) respiration 3. Internal (tissue) respiration
26
What is the reason for breathing?
- supply O2 to blood | - remove CO2 from blood
27
What are two structural parts and two functional parts of the respiratory system? And what do they consist of?
Structural : - Upper: nose, pharynx and associated structures - lower: Larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs Functional - Conducting and respiratory zone
28
upper Respiratory System anatomy
Larynx = passage that connects pharynx and trachea - contains vocal folds which produce sound when vibrates (vocal box) Trachea = extend from larynx to primary bronchi Bronchi = at 5th thoracic vertebrae the trachea branches into right primary bronchi which enter right lung and left primary bronchi which enters left lung - upon entering lungs primary bronchi divide into smaller branches - terminal bronchioles are at the end of conducting zone
29
What is the conducting zone?
= filter, warm and moisten air and conduct it into lungs - made of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
30
Lower Respiratory System anatomy
Lungs = paired organs in thoracic cavity - enclosed and protected by pleura membrane Alveoli = respiratory zone terminates at the alveoli and air sacs are found within the lungs
31
Respiratory zone
= respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts (10% gas exchange) - Aioli (90%) gas exchange
32
Alveolus
2 kinds of cells 1. Type 1 = gas exchange 2. Type 2 = produce surfactant - helps create surface tension and prevents alveoli from collapsing
33
What is Dead space ?
= amount of air inhaled which does not take part in the gas exchange
34
what is gas exchage?
= respiration = uptake of O2 from atmosphere and discharge of CO2 back into the environment - diffuse from region of high partial pressure to region of low
35
Negative pressure breathing
- to move O2 from atmosphere into lungs the pressure must be lower in lungs = pulling the air in - achieved by expansion of chest wall muscle contraction.
36
How does gas exchange at the alveoli work?
Millions of alveoli in lungs = huge surface area - allows O2 to diffuse rapidly across the membrane into surrounding capillaries for dispersal around the body
37
Blood supply to the lungs
Blood enters via: - pulmonary arteries (pulmonary circulation) - Bronchial arteries (systemic circulation) Blood Exists via: - pulmonary veins
38
What is pulmonary ventilation?
= the inhalation (inflow) and exhalation (outflow) of air and involves the exchange of air between the atmosphere and alveoli in the lungs - air flows between because of the altering pressures created through contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles. Air moves in - pressure in lungs is lower than atmosphere Air moves out - pressure in lungs is higher than atmosphere
39
What is the significance of smooth muscle?
= enables control of diameter of airways in relation to rate of of gas exchange
40
How does Pleura effect breathing ?
= reduces friction during breathing - lines thoracic wall and diaphragm and onto lungs - helps to create negative pressure (breath in) and positive pressure (breath out)
41
Factors affecting Pulmonary ventilation?
- Surface tension of the alveolar fluid - elastic recoil - decreases size of alveoli during expiration - compliance - how much effort is required to stretch the lungs and chest wall
42
What is the respiratory membrane comprised of
The respiratory membrane is comprised of 1. A layer of type 1 and 2 alveolar cells and associated alveolar macrophages that constitutes the alveolar wall - Surfactant layer and squamous cell of alveolar wall 2. An epithelial basement membrane underlying the alveolar wall 3. A capillary basement membrane that is often fused to the epithelium basement membrane 4. The capillary endothelium(capillary wall)
43
Lung volumes: Expiratory reserve capacity (EVR)
= max volume of air that can be voluntarily exhaled
44
Lung volumes: Functional residual capacity FRV
= volume left in the lungs at the end of a normal breath
45
Lung volumes: Inspiratory capacity (IC)
= max volume that can be inhaled
46
Lung volumes: Inspiratory reserve capacity (IRC)
= max volume inhaled above tidal volume
47
Lung volumes: - Tidal volume - Total lung capacity - Vital capacity
Tidal = normal breathing TLC = entire volume of lung Vital = max volume that can be inhaled and exhaled
48
Internal and external respiration
At higher pressure O2 binds to haemoglobin more External = O2 diffuse from alveoli into pulmonary capillaries Internal = O2 diffuse from systemic capillaries into tissues
49
How is O2 transported in the blood
- 97% carried attached to haemoglobin = oxyhemoglobin | - 3% dissolved in plasma
50
The oxygen- haemoglobin dissociation curve
= shows the relationship between haemoglobin saturation and Po2 at normal temp (partial pressure of O2 on x axis and oxygen saturation y axis) - shows how many o2 bind to the haemoglobin - when you need more O2 in the tissues the haemoglobin with have less affinity for O2 because it is needed in the tissues - when more affinity the O2 isn't needed by the tissues e. g. running - less affinity because O2 is needed by tissues
51
Cyanosis
= oxygen not reaching extremities - bluish discolouration of skin
52
Axial skeleton? Appendicular skeleton?
axial = Bones that are along axis of the body - skull, sternum, rib, spine appendicular = bones of appendages - arms and legs that connect to the axial - clavicle, scapula, Humerus, pelvis, femur, tibia
53
Bone
= made up of - organic materials --> cell and its products (30%) and 70% mineral - gravity compresses bone
54
5 types of bones
- Long (greater length than width) - short (cube shaped) - flat (thin layers of parallel) - irregular (e.g. vertebra) - sesamoid OSTEO = refers to bone
55
Cells in bones (3)
1. Osteoblasts = build bone - bone forming - active near bone surface - produce collagen - forms a framework around which bone is boult - allows bone to flex 2. Osteocytes = maintain bone - located in bone matrix - osteoblasts that have been trapped in bone 3. Osteoclasts = break down bone - remove bone during repair and remodelling
56
Bone minerals
= give bone compressional strength Cortical bone = makes up the outer shell of bone giving it shape Spongy bone = located in ends of bone between the cortical and medullary cavity - contributes to the length
57
Bone formation = ossification
Forms in four situations 1. Embryological and foetal development 2. When bone grows before adulthood 3. Bone remodels (ongoing) 4. Fractures heal
58
The phases of remodelling (3)
= existing bone is resorbed and new bone is laid down Phase 1: stimulate such as hormone, drugs, physical stress stimulates osteoclasts phase 2: osteoclasts reabsorb bone leaving behind resorption cavity (2 weeks) Phase 3: osteoblasts lining the resorption cavity lay down new bone (4 months)
59
Joints
= connects between bones in the body linking the skeleton into a functional unit - there are several types of joints and their structure reflects their function
60
Types of joints
Fibrous = non movement or limited - bones held together by fibrous - structures in skill Cartilaginous = no movement or limited - pelvic symphysis Synovial = free movement - bones are held together by joint capsule and ligaments - bones not in direct contact - capsule contains synovium to reduce friction and absorbs shock - tendon sheaths
61
Muscles
= generate tension by shortening - shortening is an active process requiring ATP Microcytes = cells of the muscles - electrically excitable, contractile, extend elastic
62
Types of muscles
Skeletal - attached to skeleton --> responsible for movement Cardiac - myocardium (in heart) - responsible for pumping blood - involuntary Smooth - located in tissue - controlling diameter of structures
63
What happens when muscles contract?
- a chemical energy is transformed into mechanical energy Made up of fibres that contain contractile proteins (filaments): - Myosin - think filaments - heads that project towards actin - Actin - thin filament - actin has binding sites for myosin head - Brain sends action potential along the motor neuron opening up sodium channels - Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium into the muscle cells - calcium rushes into cells allowing for tropine and tropomysion bind to calcium and the protein changes shape (body guard) - Myosin heads (atp attached) form a cross bridge to actin pulling it across - therefore muscles have contracted - when myosin head link to actin form cross-bridges - cross bridges rotate = muscle contracts - requires ATP - once myosin head rotates the connection is broken muscles relax when cross bridges dont rotate
64
Skeletal muscles
- Tropmyosin blocks the binding sites on actin and prevents cross bridges from forming - calcium moves tropomyosin out of the way to allow cross bridges to form - electrical excitation of muscle cell releases calcium
65
Fibre types
Distribution of fibre types in a muscle is affected by genetics and training. Type 1: slow twitch/ red - contract slowly but fatigue slowly - use aerobic metabolism to generate ATP - supplied by nerves that activate them during contraction - needs lots of O2 Type 2: Fast twitch/ white - contract quickly but fatigue quickly - lower capillary needed - use aerobic metabolism to generate ATP
66
motor units
= a muscle has many groups of cells that are all supplied by one nerve - cells form motor unit - increase force of muscle by activating more motor units simultaneously
67
Tendons
= form link between muscle and bone - made of collagen - arrangements of collagen fibres gives tendons their function

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