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1001 Biology > 2. Aerobic health > Flashcards

2. Aerobic health Flashcards

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1
Q

Human Circulatory System

A

= circulates blood and lymph through body consisting of heart blood vessels, blood lymph and lymphatic vessels/glands

= humans have a closed circulatory system.

  • physically separated from the rest of the body
  • Consists of vessels and a pump
  • Humans have a double circulatory system as our heart is divided completely into right and left sides
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2
Q

In which direction from the heart does an Artery and venous go?

A

artery = Carries AWAY from the heart

Venous = Returns blood to the heart

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3
Q

The heart

A

= generates a pressure to forces blood continuously around the body

  • composed predominantly of cardiac muscle
  • One way flow
  • Left side is more muscular as it pumps blood all around the body
  • right side only pumps to the lungs
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4
Q

Structure of the heart?

A

Right Atrium = receives blood from the superior and inferior vena cava and the coronary sinus

Right Ventricle = receives blood from the right atrium and sends blood to the lungs

Left atrium = Receives blood from the pulmonary veins

Left ventricle = Receives blood from the left atrium and sends blood all over the body.
- wall of left ventricle is much thicker than the right as it pumps oxygenated blood all over the body rather than just to the lungs.

  • ventricles produce high pressures and are discharging chambers that push the blood back out of the heart
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5
Q

What is the structure and function of the pericardium?

A

= Sac like structure with two layers.

  • keeps the heart contained in the chest cavity
  • prevents the heart from over-expanding when blood volume increases
  • limits heart motion
  • pericardial fluid reduces friction between the two membranes of the serous pericardium.
  1. Fibrous pericardium = tough, fibrous sac
  2. Serous pericardium = parietal lay and visceral layer (epicardium)
  3. Pericardial cavity = in-between the 2 layers of the serous pericardium and contains pericardial fluid
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6
Q

What are the layers of the heart wall?

A
  1. Epicardium = outer
  2. Myocardium = muscle
  3. Endocardium = inner
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7
Q

Explain the three blood vessels?

A

Artery

  • can withstand pressure
  • elastic wall enable to absorb pressure
  • can alter in diameter due to blood pressure and environmental changes
  • carry blood away from the heart

Capillaries
- microscopic vessels that connect to arterioles and
venule’s
- single layer walls allow for nutrients and waste to
exchange between blood and cells

Veins

  • several venules
  • carry deoxygenated blood
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8
Q

Heart as a muscle?

A

= cardiac muscle contraction

  • myocardium muscles that contracts through process of
    sliding filaments

Intercalated discs unique structural formations found between the myocardial cells of the heart.

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9
Q

what are Intercalated discs?

A

= unique structural formations found between the myocardial cells of the heart that contain 2 cell junctions:

  1. Desmosomes = hold fibre structures together so heart doesn’t pull apart.
  2. Gap Junctions = allows electric pulse to move cell to cell so the heart beats are synchronised.
    - they enable the myocardium to behave as a single coordinated unit
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10
Q

The Conduction system

A
  • cardiac muscles auto rhythmic
  • cardiac muscles repeatedly generate spontaneous action potentials that then trigger heart contractions
    = the conduction system
  • Resting state - intracellular fluid is more negatively charged then extracellular
  • Cells are polarised when electrically stimulated by another cell
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11
Q

Repolarisation vs Depolarisation

A

REpolarisation = Relaxing (setting back to start)

Depolarisation = electrical activation of myocardium
- contracting - going off or doing something

ECG = sum total of electrical charges of individual cells

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12
Q

Cardiac Cycle

A
  • one cycle consists of contraction and relaxation of both atrias followed by systole and diastole of both ventricles.

Electrical event = depolarising or repolarising

Mechanical event = what is physically happening to the heart.

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13
Q

Influences of the conductive system?

A

SA node = natural pacemaker
- autorhythmic fibres initiate action potentials most often

Neurotransmitters and hormones from sympathetic nervous system can modify the heart rate and force contractions.

Cardiac muscles generate ATP mainly by aerobic metabolism.

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14
Q

Electrical and mechanical events of an ECG wave

A

ECG Electrical Mechanical

P Atrial Depolarisation Atrial contraction

QRS Ventricular depolarisation Ventricular contraction

T. Ventricular repolarisation Ventricular relaxation

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15
Q

Describe the sequence of excitation during cardiac conduction.

A
  • SA node
  • through atria - causing atrial contraction
  • AV node
  • AV bundle
  • R and L bundle branches
  • Purkinje fibres - causes ventricular contraction
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16
Q

What is coronary circulation?

A

= blood flow to the heart

  • delivers oxygen to heart muscles
  • left and right coronary artery
  • coronary artery = delivers oxygenated blood and nutrients to the heart.
  • coronary veins remove CO2 and wasted from myocardium

LEARN PICTURE

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17
Q

Stroke Volume?

A

Stroke volume is thee amount of blood pumped out of a ventricle in ONE PUMP.

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18
Q

What is Cardiac output?

A

= is the volume of blood ejected from left or right ventricle into aorta EACH MINUET.

CO = stroke volume ml/b X Heart rate (bpm)

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19
Q

Regulation of Stroke Volume (3 factors)

A
  1. Preload
    = amount ventricles are stretched by contained blood
    prior to contraction
  2. Afterload
    = force at which heart has to contract to eject blood
  3. Contractibility
    = ability to self contract
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20
Q

What are Heart Valves?

A

= control flow of blood through heart preventing back flow
- controlled by pressure differences

Tricuspid, Pulmonary, Mitral, Aortic valve

Murmor = faulty blood flow in heart

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21
Q

What is Blood pressure and what is affected by?

A

= the pressure exerted by the blood against the walls of the arteries

affected by:

  • cardiac output
  • peripheral resistance
  • Viscosity and blood volume

Blood Pressure is determined by Cardiac output and Vascular resistance

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22
Q

What is Vascular resistance (R)?

A

= the opposition to blood flow due to friction between blood and walls of vessels.

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23
Q

What is venous return?

A

= the volume of blood flowing back to heart through systemic veins occurs due to the pressure generated by contractions fo the hearts left ventricle.

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24
Q

Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)

A

= how much O2 is getting into tissues.

  • valve is important because it is the difference between MAP and venous pressure that drives blood through capillaries of organs.
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25
Q

The Respiratory system

A

Breathing and respiratory:
- Respiration is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere, blood and cell.

Combination of 3 processes is required for respiration to occur:

  1. Ventilation (breathing)
  2. External (pulmonary) respiration
  3. Internal (tissue) respiration
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26
Q

What is the reason for breathing?

A
  • supply O2 to blood

- remove CO2 from blood

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27
Q

What are two structural parts and two functional parts of the respiratory system?

And what do they consist of?

A

Structural :

  • Upper: nose, pharynx and associated structures
  • lower: Larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs

Functional - Conducting and respiratory zone

28
Q

upper Respiratory System anatomy

A

Larynx = passage that connects pharynx and trachea
- contains vocal folds which produce sound when
vibrates (vocal box)

Trachea = extend from larynx to primary bronchi

Bronchi = at 5th thoracic vertebrae the trachea branches into right primary bronchi which enter right lung and left primary bronchi which enters left lung
- upon entering lungs primary bronchi divide into
smaller branches
- terminal bronchioles are at the end of conducting
zone

29
Q

What is the conducting zone?

A

= filter, warm and moisten air and conduct it into lungs

  • made of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
30
Q

Lower Respiratory System anatomy

A

Lungs = paired organs in thoracic cavity
- enclosed and protected by pleura membrane

Alveoli = respiratory zone terminates at the alveoli and air sacs are found within the lungs

31
Q

Respiratory zone

A

= respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts (10% gas exchange)

  • Aioli (90%) gas exchange
32
Q

Alveolus

A

2 kinds of cells

  1. Type 1 = gas exchange
  2. Type 2 = produce surfactant
    • helps create surface tension and prevents alveoli
      from collapsing
33
Q

What is Dead space ?

A

= amount of air inhaled which does not take part in the gas exchange

34
Q

what is gas exchage?

A

= respiration

= uptake of O2 from atmosphere and discharge of CO2 back into the environment

  • diffuse from region of high partial pressure to region of low
35
Q

Negative pressure breathing

A
  • to move O2 from atmosphere into lungs the pressure must be lower in lungs
    = pulling the air in
  • achieved by expansion of chest wall muscle contraction.
36
Q

How does gas exchange at the alveoli work?

A

Millions of alveoli in lungs = huge surface area

  • allows O2 to diffuse rapidly across the membrane into surrounding capillaries for dispersal around the body
37
Q

Blood supply to the lungs

A

Blood enters via:

  • pulmonary arteries (pulmonary circulation)
  • Bronchial arteries (systemic circulation)

Blood Exists via:
- pulmonary veins

38
Q

What is pulmonary ventilation?

A

= the inhalation (inflow) and exhalation (outflow) of air and involves the exchange of air between the atmosphere and alveoli in the lungs

  • air flows between because of the altering pressures created through contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles.

Air moves in - pressure in lungs is lower than atmosphere

Air moves out - pressure in lungs is higher than atmosphere

39
Q

What is the significance of smooth muscle?

A

= enables control of diameter of airways in relation to rate of of gas exchange

40
Q

How does Pleura effect breathing ?

A

= reduces friction during breathing

  • lines thoracic wall and diaphragm and onto lungs
  • helps to create negative pressure (breath in) and positive pressure (breath out)
41
Q

Factors affecting Pulmonary ventilation?

A
  • Surface tension of the alveolar fluid
  • elastic recoil - decreases size of alveoli during expiration
  • compliance - how much effort is required to stretch the lungs and chest wall
42
Q

What is the respiratory membrane comprised of

A

The respiratory membrane is comprised of
1. A layer of type 1 and 2 alveolar cells and associated
alveolar macrophages that constitutes the alveolar
wall
- Surfactant layer and squamous cell of alveolar
wall

  1. An epithelial basement membrane underlying the alveolar wall
  2. A capillary basement membrane that is often fused to the epithelium basement membrane
  3. The capillary endothelium(capillary wall)
43
Q

Lung volumes:

Expiratory reserve capacity (EVR)

A

= max volume of air that can be voluntarily exhaled

44
Q

Lung volumes:

Functional residual capacity FRV

A

= volume left in the lungs at the end of a normal breath

45
Q

Lung volumes:

Inspiratory capacity (IC)

A

= max volume that can be inhaled

46
Q

Lung volumes:

Inspiratory reserve capacity (IRC)

A

= max volume inhaled above tidal volume

47
Q

Lung volumes:

  • Tidal volume
  • Total lung capacity
  • Vital capacity
A

Tidal = normal breathing

TLC = entire volume of lung

Vital = max volume that can be inhaled and exhaled

48
Q

Internal and external respiration

A

At higher pressure O2 binds to haemoglobin more

External = O2 diffuse from alveoli into pulmonary capillaries

Internal = O2 diffuse from systemic capillaries into tissues

49
Q

How is O2 transported in the blood

A
  • 97% carried attached to haemoglobin = oxyhemoglobin

- 3% dissolved in plasma

50
Q

The oxygen- haemoglobin dissociation curve

A

= shows the relationship between haemoglobin saturation and Po2 at normal temp

(partial pressure of O2 on x axis and oxygen saturation y
axis)

  • shows how many o2 bind to the haemoglobin
  • when you need more O2 in the tissues the haemoglobin with have less affinity for O2 because it is needed in the tissues
  • when more affinity the O2 isn’t needed by the tissues
    e. g. running - less affinity because O2 is needed by tissues
51
Q

Cyanosis

A

= oxygen not reaching extremities

  • bluish discolouration of skin
52
Q

Axial skeleton?

Appendicular skeleton?

A

axial = Bones that are along axis of the body
- skull, sternum, rib, spine

appendicular = bones of appendages

  • arms and legs that connect to the axial
  • clavicle, scapula, Humerus, pelvis, femur, tibia
53
Q

Bone

A

= made up of
- organic materials –> cell and its products (30%) and
70% mineral

- gravity compresses bone
54
Q

5 types of bones

A
  • Long (greater length than width)
  • short (cube shaped)
  • flat (thin layers of parallel)
  • irregular (e.g. vertebra)
  • sesamoid

OSTEO = refers to bone

55
Q

Cells in bones (3)

A
  1. Osteoblasts = build bone
    - bone forming
    - active near bone surface
    - produce collagen
    - forms a framework around which bone is boult
    - allows bone to flex
  2. Osteocytes = maintain bone
    • located in bone matrix
    • osteoblasts that have been trapped in bone
  3. Osteoclasts = break down bone
    • remove bone during repair and remodelling
56
Q

Bone minerals

A

= give bone compressional strength

Cortical bone = makes up the outer shell of bone giving it shape

Spongy bone = located in ends of bone between the cortical and medullary cavity
- contributes to the length

57
Q

Bone formation = ossification

A

Forms in four situations
1. Embryological and foetal development

  1. When bone grows before adulthood
  2. Bone remodels (ongoing)
  3. Fractures heal
58
Q

The phases of remodelling (3)

A

= existing bone is resorbed and new bone is laid down

Phase 1: stimulate such as hormone, drugs, physical stress stimulates osteoclasts

phase 2: osteoclasts reabsorb bone leaving behind resorption cavity (2 weeks)

Phase 3: osteoblasts lining the resorption cavity lay down new bone (4 months)

59
Q

Joints

A

= connects between bones in the body linking the skeleton into a functional unit

  • there are several types of joints and their structure reflects their function
60
Q

Types of joints

A

Fibrous = non movement or limited

  • bones held together by fibrous
    • structures in skill

Cartilaginous = no movement or limited
- pelvic symphysis

Synovial = free movement

  • bones are held together by joint capsule and ligaments
  • bones not in direct contact
  • capsule contains synovium to reduce friction and absorbs shock
  • tendon sheaths
61
Q

Muscles

A

= generate tension by shortening
- shortening is an active process requiring ATP

Microcytes = cells of the muscles
- electrically excitable, contractile, extend elastic

62
Q

Types of muscles

A

Skeletal - attached to skeleton –> responsible for movement

Cardiac - myocardium (in heart)

  • responsible for pumping blood
  • involuntary

Smooth - located in tissue
- controlling diameter of structures

63
Q

What happens when muscles contract?

A
  • a chemical energy is transformed into mechanical energy

Made up of fibres that contain contractile proteins (filaments):

  • Myosin - think filaments
    - heads that project towards actin
  • Actin - thin filament
    - actin has binding sites for myosin head
  • Brain sends action potential along the motor neuron opening up sodium channels
  • Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium into the muscle cells
  • calcium rushes into cells allowing for tropine and tropomysion bind to calcium and the protein changes shape (body guard)
  • Myosin heads (atp attached) form a cross bridge to actin pulling it across
  • therefore muscles have contracted
  • when myosin head link to actin form cross-bridges
  • cross bridges rotate = muscle contracts
    • requires ATP
    • once myosin head rotates the connection is broken

muscles relax when cross bridges dont rotate

64
Q

Skeletal muscles

A
  • Tropmyosin blocks the binding sites on actin and prevents cross bridges from forming
  • calcium moves tropomyosin out of the way to allow cross bridges to form
  • electrical excitation of muscle cell releases calcium
65
Q

Fibre types

A

Distribution of fibre types in a muscle is affected by genetics and training.

Type 1: slow twitch/ red

  • contract slowly but fatigue slowly
  • use aerobic metabolism to generate ATP
  • supplied by nerves that activate them during contraction
  • needs lots of O2

Type 2: Fast twitch/ white

  • contract quickly but fatigue quickly
  • lower capillary needed
  • use aerobic metabolism to generate ATP
66
Q

motor units

A

= a muscle has many groups of cells that are all supplied by one nerve - cells form motor unit

  • increase force of muscle by activating more motor units simultaneously
67
Q

Tendons

A

= form link between muscle and bone

  • made of collagen
  • arrangements of collagen fibres gives tendons their function

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