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1A Biological molecules Flashcards

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1
Q

Name 4 carbon-based molecules

A

Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acid

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2
Q

What is the role of a Carbohydrate?

A
  • Respiratory substrate from which cells release the energy required to carry out functions
  • Have structural roles
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3
Q

What is a Lipid?

A

Major component in plasma membranes

Make up certain hormones + act as respiratory substrates

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4
Q

What is the role of a Protein?

A

Main role as enzymes
They are chemical messengers
Important components of the blood, i.e. antibodies

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5
Q

What is the role of a Nucleic Acid?

A

Carry genetic info that determines the structure of proteins (DNA)

Other roles in the synthesis of proteins/DNA (RNA)

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6
Q

What are the 3 ways molecules tend to bond?

A

Hydrogen bonds
Covalent bonds
Ionic bonds

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7
Q

What is a monomer?

A

Individual sub-unit

Form polymers

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8
Q

What is a polymer

A

A chain of repeating sub-units (monomers)

The process to form these is called polymerisation

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9
Q

What are the monomers of a polymer usually based of?

A

Carbon

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10
Q

What is the sub-unit of a polysaccharide?

A

A monosaccharide

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11
Q

How can polymers be formed?

A

Condensation reactions (dehydration synthesis)
Each time a new sub unit is attached, a molecule of water is released
i.e. the formation of a polypeptide from amino acids is a condensation reaction

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12
Q

How can polymers be broken down?

A

Hydrolysis reaction
Water molecules are used to break bonds between sub-units
i.e. polypeptides can be hydrolyzed into amino acids

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13
Q

What is metabolism?

A

All the chemical processes that take place in a living organism

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14
Q

Why are many molecules based on carbon?

A

They have 4 available bonds therefore they can form large structures

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15
Q

What is the difference between alpha glucose and beta glucose?

A

The right hand OH and H molecule flip on the beta glucose

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16
Q

What are monosaccharides?

A

Sweet tasting, soluble substances with the general formula (CH2O)n

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17
Q

Give 3 examples of a monosaccharide

A

Glucose, Galactose and Fructose

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18
Q

What is glucose like?

A

It is a 6-carbon (hexose) sugar and has the formula C6H12O6

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19
Q

What are reducing sugars?

A

All monosaccharides and some disaccharides

A sugar that can donate electrons to (or reduce) another chemical

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20
Q

What is reduction?

A

A reaction involving the gain of hydrogen or electrons

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21
Q

What is the test for reducing sugars called?

A

The Benedict’s test

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22
Q

Describe the test for reducing sugars.

A
  • Add 2cm^3 of of the food sample (if the sample is not already in liquid form, fist grind it up in water)
  • Add an equal volume of Benedict’s reagent
  • Heat the mixture in a gently boiling water bath
  • If a reducing sugar is present, the solution turns orange brown
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23
Q

Which order do the colours of the end solution in a reducing sugars test go in?

A
  • Blue –> none present
  • Green –> traces
  • Yellow –> low
  • Orange –> moderate
  • Red –> high
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24
Q

Why is carbon the main element in molecules?

A

It can bond to form large stable structures

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25
Q

What are the 6 functional groups?

A
  • Carboxyl
  • Amino
  • Methyl
  • Carbonyl
  • Phosphate
  • Hydroxyl
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26
Q

What are polymers and how are they made?

A

They are long chains of monomers

Made via dehydration synthesis/condensation reaction

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27
Q

How are polymers broken down?

A

Via hydrolysis

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28
Q

What are the 4 key molecules?

A

DNA, Proteins (amino acids), Lipids and Carbohydrates

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29
Q

__1__ of elements join to make ____2____

molecules are called ____3____

A

1- Atoms
2- Molecules
3- Compound

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30
Q

What are enzymes made of?

A

Proteins

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31
Q

What is the function of carbohydrates?

A
  • -> used by cells as respiratory substrates

- -> structural components in plasma membranes + cell walls

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32
Q

What is the function of lipids?

A
  • -> bilayer of plasma membranes
  • -> certain hormones
  • -> respiratory substrates
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33
Q

What is the function of proteins?

A
  • -> many cell structures
  • -> enzymes
  • -> chemical messengers
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34
Q

What is the function of nucleic acid?

A

–> carry genetic code

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35
Q

Most carbohydrates are ……

A

polymers

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36
Q

What is the definition of a polymer?

A

Large complex molecules composed of long chains of monomers

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37
Q

What is the definition of a monomer?

A

Basic molecular units

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38
Q

What are monomers that make up carbohydrates called?

A

A monosaccharide

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39
Q

What are the two types of glucose?

A

alpha glucose and beta glucose

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40
Q

What is the difference between the two types of glucose?

A

The OH and H molecule on the end of a beta glucose flips (is the opposite to alpha glucose)

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41
Q

Name 3 monosaccharides

A
  • Galactose
  • Glucose
  • Fructose
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42
Q

Name 3 disaccharides

A
  • Maltose
  • Sucrose
  • Lactose
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43
Q

Name 3 polysaccharides

A
  • Cellulose
  • Glycogen
  • Starch
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44
Q

Explain how a disaccharide is formed?

A
  • Monosaccharides are joined in a condensation reaction
  • A water molecule is released in the process
  • New bond is formed; called a glycosidic bond
  • This form a disaccharide
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45
Q

How is maltose formed?

A

A condensation reaction of 2 x alpha-glucose

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46
Q

How is sucrose formed?

A

A condensation reaction of a glucose and a fructose

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47
Q

How is lactose formed?

A

A condensation reaction of a glucose and a galactose

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48
Q

How is cellulose formed?

A

A chain of beta-glucose

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49
Q

How is glycogen formed?

A

A chain of alpha-glucose molecules

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50
Q

How is starch formed?

A

A chain of alpha-glucose molecules

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51
Q

What is an isomer?

A

alpha-glucose and beta-glucose are different isomers of glucose

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52
Q

How would you break a glycosidic bond?

A

By adding water

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53
Q

What is hydrolysis?

A

Breaking of bonds using water

  • The opposite to a condensation reaction
  • Hydro = water
  • Lysis = breaking things
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54
Q

What are monosaccharides like?

A
  • sweet tasting
  • soluble
  • General formula: (CH2O)n –> where n is any no. 3-7
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55
Q

What are the names of the 3-7 monosaccharides?

A 
3- Triose
4- Tetrose
5- Pentose
6- Hexose
7- Heptose
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56
Q

What do all carbohydrates contain?

A
  • Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen
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57
Q

What are all carbohydrates made of?

A

Fructose

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58
Q

What are pentoses?

A

5 carbon monosaccharides

ex. ribose and deoxyribose

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59
Q

What are hexoses?

A

6 carbon monosaccharides

ex. glucose, fructose and galactose

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60
Q

What is the structure of starch?

A

Made of chains of alpha-glucose monosaccharides, linked by glycosidic bonds that are formed via condensation reactions

Branched & unbranched version

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61
Q

What is the biological function of starch?

A
  • Main role is (long term) energy storage ie for winter months
  • Starch is never found in animal cells, instead glycogen is, which serves a similar role
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62
Q

How does the structure of starch aid its function of energy storage?

A
  • it is insoluble
  • it is compact
  • when hydrolysed it forms alpha-glucose
  • Branched form has many ends
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63
Q

Why does being insoluble help starch?

A
  • Doesn’t affect water potential –> water is not drawn into the cell via osmosis
  • It is lage (also insoluble) it does not diffuse out of cells
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64
Q

Why is being compact useful for starch?

A

so a lot can be stored in a small space (spiral design so it can coil)

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65
Q

Why does starch forming alpha-glucose help its function?

A

alpha-glucose is both easily transported and readily used in respiration

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66
Q

Why does the branched form of starch help its function?

A

it has many ends which means they can be acted on by enzymes simultaneously meaning that glucose monomers are released very rapidly

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67
Q

What is the structure of glycogen?

A
  • It has a similar structure to starch (chains of alpha-glucose monosaccharides) but has shorter chains
  • More highly branched than starch
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68
Q

What is the biological function of glycogen?

A
  • Stored as small granules mainly in muscles and the liver

- The role of glycogen is to be stored as energy for when needed

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69
Q

How is the structure of glycogen specific to its function?

A
  • insoluble
  • compact
  • more highly branched than starch
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70
Q

How does glycogen being insoluble help its function?

A
  • therefore does not tend to draw water into the cell via osmosis
  • being insoluble it does not diffuse out of cells
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71
Q

How does glycogen being compact help its function?

A

A lot can be stored in a small space

72
Q

How does glycogen being highly branched help its function?

A
  • It is more highly branched than starch so it has more ends that can be acted on simultaneously
  • Therefore is more rapidly broken down to form glucose monomers, which are used in respiration
73
Q

What is the structure of cellulose?

A
  • made of monomers of beta-glucose rather than alpha glucose
  • cellulose has straight, unbranched chains. They run parallel to one another, allowing hydrogen bonds to adjacent chains
  • overall noi. makes cellulose very strong
74
Q

What are the biological functions of cellulose?

A
  • cellulose provides rigidity to plant cells
  • cellulose prevents the cell from bursting as water enters it via osmosis
  • it does this by exerting an inward pressure
75
Q

Why is cellulose in long, straight unbranched chains?

A

it is made of beta-glucose

76
Q

Why is cellulose very strong?

A
  • the molecular chains run parallel to each other

- they are cross linked by hydrogen bonds add collective strength

77
Q

How does cellulose have extra strength?

A

It has molecules that are grouped to form microfibrils, in turn these are grouped to form fibres - this provides more strength

78
Q

What is glycogen?

A

Storage molecule for animal and bacteria cells

79
Q

What is starch?

A

storage molecule for plant cells (only found in plant cells)

80
Q

What is chitin?

A

another example of a complex carbohydrate which is found it your hair and nails

81
Q

What are the two categories sugars can be categorised into?

A
  • reducing

- non-reducing

82
Q

Which type of sugar reacts with Benedict’s solution?

A

reducing

83
Q

What is the method for testing reducing sugars?

A
  1. add an excess of Benedict’s solution (a blue solution)
  2. heat in a water bath, that has been boiled
  3. if the test is positive, ie there are sugars present, a coloured precipitate will form
  4. there is a scale of results blue-green-yellow-orange-red
84
Q

What is the first stage in testing for sugars?

A

Add an excess of Benedict’s solution (a blue solution)

85
Q

What is the second stage in testing for sugars?

A

heat in a water bath, that has been boiled

86
Q

What is the third stage in testing for sugars?

A

if the test is positive, ie there are sugars present, a coloured precipitate will form

87
Q

What is the fourth stage in testing for sugars?

A

there is a scale of results blue-green-yellow-orange-red

88
Q

What forms between the enzyme and substrate at the active site?

A

Enzyme-substrate complex

89
Q

What are lipids composed of?

A

Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

90
Q

What is the proportion of oxygen to carbon and hydrogen compared to carbohydrates in lipids?

A

The proportion is lower

91
Q

Are lipids soluble?

A

Lipids are insoluble

92
Q

When are lipids soluble?

A

When in organic substances e.g. alcohol and acetone

93
Q

What are the functions of lipids?

A
  • energy storage
  • waterproofing
  • insulation
  • physical protection
94
Q

What temp are fats solid at?

A

10-20 degrees

95
Q

What temp are oils liquid at?

A

10-20 degrees

96
Q

What are triglycerides made of?

A

3 fatty acid tails and a glycerol molecule

97
Q

What is released when a triglyceride is formed?

A

3H2O

98
Q

What sort of bonds are in triglycerides?

A

ester

99
Q

What are the types of fatty acid?

A
  • saturated
  • monounsaturated - one double bond
  • polyunsaturated - many double bonds
100
Q

Are fats usually saturated or unsaturated?

A

saturated

101
Q

Are oils usually saturated or unsaturated?

A

unsaturated

102
Q

What do triglycerides have a high ratio of?

A

energy storing carbon-hydrogen bonds –> when broken, lots of energy is produced

103
Q

Triglycerides have a high/low mass to energy ratio

A

low

104
Q

Are triglycerides insoluble?

A

Yes, they are large and insoluble molecules therefore water will not be drawn into the cell

105
Q

Why do triglycerides release water when oxidised?

A

Because they have a high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen

106
Q

What is the difference between a triglyceride and a phospholipid?

A

One fatty acid is replaced with a phosphate molecule

107
Q

Are the fatty acid tails hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

A

hydrophobic

108
Q

Is the phosphate molecule hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

A

hydrophilic

109
Q

In aqueous conditions what can phospholipids form and why?

A
  • Bilayers
  • They have a phosphate head (hydrophilic) which is drawn towards water and 2 (hydrophobic) fatty acid tails which try and get away from water, forming bilayers
110
Q

What is the test for lipids?

A

The emulsion test

111
Q

What is the structure of a phospholipid bilayer named?

A

Fluid mosaic model - as they can flow around each other

112
Q

What are the several parts that make up amino acids?

A
  • central alpha carbon –> everything branches off of this
  • one branch is a hydrogen atom
  • one branch is an amino group (NH2)
  • opposite branch is a carboxyl group
  • 4th branch is an R-variable group
113
Q

Why do composts designed for younger plants have more N that P or K (in relation to NPK in horticulture)?

A

Proteins are used for growth + repair - nitrogen is needed for the proteins due to the amino group

114
Q

How many types of naturally occurring amino acids are there?

A

20

115
Q

Which part of the proteins structure determines the properties of the amino acid?

A

The R-variable group

116
Q

What do a series of amino acids join to form?

A

A polypeptide

117
Q

What is the joining of polymers to monomers called?

A

polymerisation

118
Q

When amino acids join what is formed?

A

a peptide group

119
Q

What are the 4 levels of structure a protein can have?

A
  • Primary
  • Secondary
  • Tertiary
  • Quaternary
120
Q

What is the primary structure of a protein?

A

The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

121
Q

What does the primary structure of proteins determine?

A

The ultimate shape and functionality of the chain

122
Q

What is the secondary structure of a protein?

A

The hydrogen bonds forming between the positively charged hydrogen of the -NH groups and O^- of the C=O group

123
Q

Are hydrogen bonds weak or strong?

A

Relatively weak

124
Q

What does the secondary structure of a protein create?

A
  • An alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet

- They hydrogen bonds are strong enough to twist the polypeptide chain into a 3D shape

125
Q

What is the tertiary structure of a protein determined by?

A
  • The amino acid order
126
Q

What are the bonds involved in the tertiary structure of proteins?

A
  • Disulfide
  • Ionic
  • Hydrogen
127
Q

What does the tertiary structure of proteins involve?

A
  • It is a result of further twisting of the secondary structure
  • It plays a significant role in determining the behaviour of the protein
128
Q

What is the quaternary structure of a protein?

A
  • Multiple polypeptides bonded together
  • Only for large proteins i.e. haemoglobin
  • The haem group of the haemoglobin is not a protein
129
Q

What bonds hold together each level of the protein structure?

  • primary
  • secondary
  • tertiary
  • quaternary
A

Primary - peptide bonds
Secondary - hydrogen bonds
Tertiary - hydrogen, ionic + disulfide bonds
Quaternary - hydrogen, ionic + disulfide bonds

130
Q

What are the 3 conditions needed for a reaction?

A
  • Must collide with sufficient energy
  • Free energy of the products must be less than that of the substrates
  • Activation energy requirements must be met
131
Q

What role do amino acids have in the structure of enzymes?

A

They form the specific 3D shape

132
Q

How do enzymes break down molecules?

A
  • The active site forms a small depression in the larger molecule
  • Enzymes then hold the substrate in a condition which breaks the bonds easily
133
Q

What is the optimal temp for most enzymes?

A

37 degrees - body temp

134
Q

Which structure of proteins determines the functionality and how?

A
  • Tertiary

- It is the folded structure which is the 3D structure –> forming the active site shape

135
Q

What is the test for lipids?

A

The emulsion test

136
Q

State the emulsion test

A

1) take a dry + grease free tube
2) To 2cm^3 of sample, add 5cm^3 of ethanol
3) Shake the tube to dissolve any lipid in the sample
4) Add 5cm^3 of water + shake gently
5) A white emulsion indicates the presence of a lipid
6) As a control repeat the procedures using water instead of the sample; this should remain clear

137
Q

What are the two main types of proteins?

A
  • FIbrous

- Globular

138
Q

What are Fibrous proteins like?

A

Have structural functions, collagen is found in tendons that join muscle to bone

139
Q

What are Globular proteins for?

A

Form metabolic function

140
Q

Which type of proteins have a quaternary structure?

A

Both

141
Q

What is the primary structure of collagen?

A

A polypeptide chain

142
Q

What is the secondary structure of collagen?

A

Tightly coiled

143
Q

Why does collagen have a high concentration of glycine?

A

(glycine is an amino acid) it helps it to pack close together

144
Q

What is the tertiary structure of collagen?

A

Also a helix shape

145
Q

What is the quaternary structure of collagen?

A

It is 3 double coiled polypeptide chains wound together

146
Q

What is haemoglobin like?

A
  • Also has a quaternary structure

- Made of alpha and beta glucose chains

147
Q

Give an example of a globular protein?

A
  • Enzymes

- Haemoglobin

148
Q

What is an example of a fibrous protein?

A
  • Collagen
149
Q

What are the 4 factors affecting enzyme activity?

A
  • temperature
  • pH
  • enzyme conc.
  • substrate conc.
150
Q

Why does temperature affect the rate of enzyme activity?

A

More energy = more collisions between substrates + the active site of the enzymes

151
Q

What happens when an enzyme denatures from the temperature being too high?

A
  • the bonds in the tertiary structure breaks
  • due to vibrations in particles
  • This unfolds the 3D structure of the enzyme
152
Q

What happens at the optimum temp for enzymes?

A

The maximum rate of reaction

153
Q

What pH do most human enzymes work best around?

A

pH7

154
Q

Give an example of an enzyme that doesn’t work at a pH7

A

Pepsin, works at pH2

155
Q

How does an enzyme denature due to the wrong pH?

A

If the pH drops below/goes above optimum, the H+ and OH- ions interfere with the ionic and hydrogen bonds in the tertiary structure
This changes its shape

156
Q

For chemical reactions to occur naturally, what 3 conditions must be met?

A
  • Reactants must collide with sufficient energy (to alter the arrangements of their atoms)
  • The free energy of the products must be less than that of the substrates
  • Must be sufficient activation energy
157
Q

Many proteins are __1__ (___2___ proteins)

A
  1. enzymes

2. globular

158
Q

What are the 3 things that determine a protein’s primary structure?

A
  1. which amino acids are present
  2. how many of these amino acids
  3. what order of amino acids
159
Q

Name the structural carbohydrate found in animals and fungi

A

Chitin

160
Q

What does RNA stand for

A

ribonucleic acid

161
Q

What is the difference between DNA and RNA?

A

Uracil replaces Thymine in RNA
RNA is much shorter than DNA
Pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, pentose sugar in RNA is ribose

162
Q

What is the traditional model for enzymes fitting?

A

Lock and key model

163
Q

What is the modern model for enzymes fitting?

A

Induced fit

164
Q

What allows the enzyme to shape to the substrate?

A

The flexibility in the polypeptide chains`

165
Q

How do enzymes make bonds?

A

Holds substrate molecules close enough to overcome repulsion between molecules

166
Q

How do enzymes break bonds?

A

Enzyme puts strain of substrate, reducing the amount of energy needed to break the molecule

167
Q

How can you measure the rate of reaction?

A
  • Change in substrate/time
  • Change in product/time
  • grams/moles/litres
168
Q

How do you calculate the rate of reaction?

A
  • Draw a tangent to the line

- Chiny/chinx

169
Q

Can enzymes be inhibited?

A

Yes

170
Q

What can inhibit an enzyme?

A

“inhibitor molecules”

171
Q

What are the 2 types of enzyme inhibition?

A
  • Competitive inhibition

- Non-competitive inhibition

172
Q

How is the enzyme inhibited in competitive enzyme inhibition?

A
  • An enzyme other than the enzyme’s specific substrate is complementary to the active site
173
Q

What happens in competitive inhibition?

A
  • If the competitive molecule forms a complex with the enzyme’s active site, then the active site is occupied
  • Usual substrate cannot form the intended enzyme-substrate complex
174
Q

How is the enzyme inhibited in non-competitive enzyme inhibition?

A

The non-competitive molecule attaches to the enzyme (not at the active site) and distorts the shape of the active site
It is no longer complementary

175
Q

What is the decrease in rate of reaction in a enzyme reaction due to?

A
  • The conc. of substrate as it is all used up

- Enzymes cannot work any harder if there is a lower conc. of substrate than conc. of enzymes

176
Q

Why doesn’t enzyme conc. decrease during a reaction?

A

They aren’t used up

177
Q

Is the Benedict’s test quantitative or semi-quatative?

A

Semi-quantitative as you don’t get an exact result (For example a pH probe you would get a quantitative result)

Biology A-level (20 decks)

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