18. Intro To Human Body Flashcards
Adipose
Fibrous Connective Tissue type that serves as storage for surplus food and insulation to conserve body heat.
Provides support and protection for certain structures such as the heart, kidneys, and some joints.
Anatomy
Study of body structures and their propositional relationships to one another.
Gross: larger body structures: bones, muscles, organs
Microscopic: Cells, tissues
Applied: body structures and the changes they undergo during the diagnosis and treatment of disease.
Comparative: differences between structures of all life forms
Surface: relationships of structures found on the surface of the body and how they relate to internal structures.
Cytoplasm
Gel-like intracellular fluid. (346salvo)
(aka protoplasm). Contains organelles. Where most cellular activities like metabolism and cell division occur.
portioned into :
-cytosol, which is not contained within organelles, and
-endoplasm, which is contained within organelles.
Fibrocartilage
An avascular connective tissue that receives nutrients by diffusion. The strongest and most durable of all cartilage types.
In the form of discs they serve as shock absorbers and are found between vertebrae as intervertebral disks and in the knee (meniscus). (p. 354)
Diffusion
Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration to equalize concentrations.
Molecules simply spread out in a given space across a cell membrane. sped up by heat or stirring. Performed by some respiratory , cardiovascular, and digestive systems. (p347)
ex. lump of sugar dissolving water. How cartilaginous cells receive nutrients. (p354)
Epithelium Tissue
Tissue that lines or covers external and internal body structures. (349salvo)
Classification: simple or stratified depending on its number of layers. Squamous, cuboidal, or columnar depending on its shape.
-simple: one cell thick
-stratified: two or more cells thick
-squamous: flat-shaped
-cuboidal: cube-shaped
-columnar: column-shaped
Pseudostratified: appears to have multiple layers, but its a single layer with the nuclei located at different levels (giving the appearance of different levels
Transitional: combines all cell shapes that permits stretching and is found in urinary bladder.
Lines open body cavities such as the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts; Lines closed body cavities such as the dorsal cavity. Made up of closely packed cells arranged in 1 or more layers. Does not contain blood cells. Regenerates quickly. Bound to underlying tissues by a thin membrane called a basement membrane, which provides some structural support and through which the tissue receives oxygen and nutrients by diffusion from blood capillaries in the underlying tissue.
Functions:
-protection (from mechanical injury, harmful chemicals, invading pathogens, and excessive water loss),
-absorption (gets nutrients and exchange of gases in digestive and respiratory tracts),
-secretion (of hormones, enzymes, mucus, and other lubricating fluids)
-excretion (of wastes like urine and sweat in the urinary system and skin), and
-sensation (mediated by embedded sensory receptors in the skin, tongue, nose, eyes, and ears)
Includes type:
-Endothelium, which covers internal surfaces of blood and lymphatic vessels.
-Glandular epithelium which is found in endocrine and exocrine glands and contains secretory cells.
Proximal
Directional term used to describe the location of a particular body structure when the person is standing in the anatomical position meaning nearer to the point of reference, usually toward the trunk of the body (359salvo). Refers only to structures located on the upper and lower extremities
Ex: The hip is proximal to the knee
Hyaline Cartilage
A connective tissue that is an elastic, rubbery, and smooth arranged in a translucent, pearly-blue matrix. (354salvo). The more prevalent of its type and covers the articulating surfaces of bones, connects ribs to the sternum, and found in supportive tissues in the nose, ears, trachea, and smaller respiratory tubes.
Mitochondria
Cell’s “power plants” because most chemical reactions involved in cellular respiration to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (347).
Oval organelles with 2 membranes. Outer membrane is flat and smooth. Inner is folded into numerous chambers (cristae) which enhances its metabolic properties. Most chemical reactions involved in cellular respiration happen here. Acts like a mini-digestive system and are combined with oxygen and digested maintaining the cell’s energy needs. Muscle cells have more of these and red blood cells have none of these. Sometimes these multiply when energy needs increase.
Interstitial Fluid
Fluid found in extra cellular spaces between tissues (349salvo).
Primarily composed of water and contains salts, sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, hormones, and neurotransmitters. Bathes cells and provides a transport medium for nutrients, gases, and wastes. Chemically similar to blood plasma, and lymph, but this fluid is more abundant than plasma or lymph.
Nucleus
Cell’s “control center” because it directs most metabolic activities, including growth and reproduction (347salvo). Usually spherical shaped and often the largest organelle. Contains clusters of proteins, DNA, and RNA, which contains chromosomes (genetic code). Surrounded by a porous membrane and contains a smaller inner structure (nucleolus) that helps it synthesize proteins.
All cells have at least 1 of these at some time in their existence. Red blood cells lose their nuclei as they mature. Skeletal muscle cells possesses many nuclei.
Nervous Tissue
Tissue located in the brain, spinal chord, and within nerves (355salvo). Nerve cells (neurons) transmit nerve impulses, which provide sensory input and motor output and helps interpret and coordinate bodily functions. Facilitate cognition, memory, and emotional responsiveness.
Poses character is of excitability and conductivity. Secretes chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) which assist impulse conduction.
Composed of nerve cells which have 3 parts:
-cell body: contains nucleus and other organelles
-dendrites: transmits impulses to the cell body
-axon: transmits impulses away from cell body (can have many extensions)(some surrounded by myelin sheath that increases the conduction rate of nerve impulses and prevents impulse leakage to adjacent cells.
Pathology
The study of disease (159salvo).
Anatomical Position
A position where the body is standing upright and facing forward, the arms are at the sides, palms are facing forward with thumbs to the side, and feet are hip-distance apart with toes pointing forward (359salvo).
Axial Region
Describes the region that contains the head, neck, and torso or trunk (361salvo). The upper extremity contains the arms, forearms, and hands and connections to this region via the shoulders. Lower extremities contains the thighs, legs, and feet and connections to this region via the hips.
The following are located in or near the axial region of the body:
-Cephalic: Head
-Cranial: Upper skull
-Temporal: Side of the skull
-Facial: Face
-Frontal: Forehead
-Orbital: Eye; ophthalmic means “pertaining to the eye”
-Zygomatic: Upper cheek
-Nasal: Nose
-Buccal: Check wall within the mouth
-Oral: Mouth
-Otic: Ear; auricular means “pertaining to the ear”
-Mandibular: Lower jaw
-Occipital: Lower back skull
-Cervical: Neck; nuchal means pertaining to the nape or back of the neck
-Thoracic: Chest, area between the neck and diaphragm
-Abdominal: Abdomen; superior region of the abdominopelvic cavity
-Pelvic: Pelvis; inferior region of the abdominopelvic cavity
-Pectoral: Breast area or upper anterior thorax; mammary means “pertaining to the breast”
-Costal: Ribs
-Umbilical: Navel or central abdomen; pertaining to the umbilical chord
-Vertebral: Spinal column
-Sacral: Sacrum of the spinal column
-Coccygeal: Bottom of the spinal column or coccyx area; upper region of the gluteal cleft
-Lumbar: Lower back or loin area between the ribs and hips; flank means “pertaining to the side regions of the lumbar area”
-Gluteal: Buttocks formed by the gluteal muscles.
-Sacroiliac: Between the sacrum and pelvic bones
-Perineal: Between the anus and the genitals.
Costal
Ribs (361salvo)
Serous Membranes
Membranes that line closed body cavities. Secretes thin, watery serous fluid which lubricates organs within the cavities and serves to reduce friction. This fluid is located between its 2 layers:
1. Parietal: covers the walls of cavities like wallpaper and often adhere to it.
2. Visceral: covers visceral organs located within the body cavity.
Examples: pericardium (surrounds the heart), pleura (surrounds lungs), peritoneum (surrounds organs in the abdominopelvic cavity.
Frontal Plane
Plane bisecting the body side-to-side and dividing the body into anterior and posterior sections (359salvo)
Homeostasis
The tendency of the body’s internal environment to remain relatively constant with a narrow range of change (341salvo). Primarily regulated by the nervous and endocrine system. The body seeks to stay in relatively stable state of equilibrium.
Example:
-Normal body temp 98.6 achieved by increasing heat production or releasing excess heat
-Immune response
-blood sugar regulation
-heart rate
-respiration
Contralateral
Directional term meaning the opposite side of the body (359salvo).
Example: The right foot is contralateral to the left foot.
Popliteal
Posterior Knee
Synovial Membrane
Membranes that line cavities or spaces between bones within joints, mainly freely moveable joints such as the shoulder, hip, and knee (358salvo). Secretes a thick, clear fluid (synovium) that provides nutrients and lubrication to joints so that they can move freely without friction.
Also lines flattened saclike structures (bursae) that are found near joints
Antebrachial
Forearm; between the wrist and elbow
Ventral
A cavity located on the front side (anterior aspect) of the body. Divided up by the diaphragm
Endocytosis
Active transport facilitated by vesicles that involves moving substances inside the cell (348salvo).
Step 1: The cell’s cytoskeleton pulls apart the cell wall and draws inward to form a depression.
Step 2: The torn edges create a semi-circle and surround the targeted molecules.
Step 3: The edges rejoin, trapping the molecules within the sac. The cytoskeleton retracts and pulls the sac containing the molecules inside the cell.
Exocytosis
Active transport by vesicles that involves moving substances outside the body (348salvo).
Axillary
Armpit (361salvo)
Sacroiliac
Located in the Axial Region. Between the Sacrum and pelvic bones (359salvo).
Ipsilateral
Homolateral (359salvo). Related to the same side of the body.
Example: The right hand is homolateral/ipsilateral to the right elbow
Gluteal
buttocks formed by the gluteal muscles (361salvo)
Cutaneous Membrane
Part of the integumentary system and covers external body surfaces and includes the skin. (356salvo). Can be tough as well as supple and contains secretion glands.
Mucous Membrane
(Mucosa) Lines open body cavities (357salvo).
Examples: linings of the digestive, respiratory, and urogential tracts. Secretes mucus that coats, lubricates, and protects associated structures.
Meningeal Membrane
(Meninges) Lines the spaces within the dorsal cavity (brain and spinal chord). Provides protection. Cerecrospinal fluid fills the spaces between the inner and middle meningeal layers and between middle and outer miningeal layers.
Sagittal Plane
(median plane) bisects the body from front back and divides it into the right and left sections. (359salvo). Runs parallel to the left or right of the midsagittal plane.
Midsagittal Plane
Runs through the middle of the dividing it into equal right and left halves.
Transverse Plane
(horizontal plane) bisects the body horizontally and divides the body into superior and inferior sections.
Up
Superior on a transverse plane.
Down
Inferior on a transverse plane
Left
Directional term located to the left of the body or structure
Right
Directional term located to the right of the body or structure
Superior
Situated above or toward the head end
Inferior
Situated below or toward the tail end
Anterior
Located on the front side (ventral) of the structure by the frontal plane.
Ventral Cavity
Located on the front side (anterior) aspect of the body. Divided by the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity.
Posterior
Located on the back side (dorsal) of a structure by the frontal plane.
Medial
Oriented toward or near the midline of the body
Lateral
Oriented farther away from the midline of the body
Distal
Located farther from the point of reference, usually away from the trunk of the body. Refers only to structures located on the upper and lower extremities
Coronal Plane
(Frontal Plane) bisects into anterior and posterior
Superficial
Relative to the outside or external surface of a structure
Deep
Relative to or situated within the body
Dorsal Cavity
Located on the backside(posterior) aspect of the body. Divided into cranial cavity and spinal cavity.
Cranial Cavity
within the skull and contains the brain
Spinal Cavity
(vertebral cavity) within the vertebrae of the spinal column and contains the spinal chord.
Thoracic Cavity
Part of the ventral cavity that contains the pleural cavities which surround the lungs, and the mediastinum (space between the lungs)
Abdominalpelvic Cavity
Part of the ventral cavity that divides into the abdominal cavity that contains the digestive organs, and the pelvic cavity that contains the reproductive and urinary organs
Upper Appendicular Region
(Upper Extremity) Includes the following:
Clavicular: Collar bone
Acromial: Top of the shoulder
Scapular: Shoulder blade
Deltoid: Curve of the shoulder formed by the deltoid muscle
Axillary: armpit
Brachial: Arm; between the shoulder and elbow
Antebrachial: Forearm; between the wrist and elbow
Cubital: Elbow
Antecubital: front/bend of the elbow
Carpal: wrist
Palmar: Anterior surface or palm of the hand; pertaining to the hand (volar)
Pollex: Thumb
Digital: Fingers or Toes; pertaining to the fingers or toes (phalangeal)
Femoral
Thigh (between the hip and knee) (365salvo)
Lower Appendicular Region
(Lower Extremity) Includes the following:
Groin: Area between thigh and abdomen; pertaining to the groin (inguinal)
Pubic: Genital area over the pubic symphysis
Coxal: Hip
Femoral: Thigh; between the hip and knee
Patellar: kneecap
Popliteal: Posterior knee
Crural: Leg; between the knee and ankle
Calf: Posterior leg; pertaining to the calf (sural)
Tarsal: Ankle
Pedal: Foot or feet
Cephalic
Axial Region - Head
Cranial
Axial Region - Upper Skull
Temporal
Axial Region - Side of Skull
Mastoid
Axial Region - located on the Temporal bone just behind the ear
Mastoid
Axial Region - located on the Temporal bone just behind the ear
Facial
Axial Region - Face
Frontal
Axial Region - Forehead
Orbital
Axial Region - Eye; (ophthalmic)
Sphenoid
Axial Region - wasp bone; makes up most of the middle part of the base of the skull and contributes to the floor of the middle cranial fossa of the skull.
Zygomatic
Axial Region - Upper Cheek
Nasal
Axial Region - Nose
Buccal
Axial Region - Cheek wall within mouth
Oral
Axial Region - Mouth
Otic
Axial Region - Ear; (auricular)
Mandibular
Axial Region - Lower Jaw
Occipital
Axial Region - Lower Back Skull
Nuchal
Axial Region - Back of the neck
Nuchal
Axial Region - Back of the neck
Thoracic
Axial Region - chest; area between neck and diaphragm
Mediastinal
Axial Region - between the sternum and the spinal column, and between the lungs
Pelvic
Axial Region - Pelvis; inferior region of the abdominopelvic region
Pelvic
Axial Region - Pelvis; inferior region of the abdominopelvic region
Pectoral
Axial Region - Breast area or upper anterior thorax; (mammary)
Costal
Axial Region - Ribs
Umbilical
Axial Region - Navel or central abdomen;
Vertebral
Axial Region - Spinal Column
Sacral
Axial Region - Sacrum of the spinal cavity
Coccygeal
Axial Region - Bottom of the Spinal column or coccyx area ; upper region of the gluteal cleft
Lumbar
Axial Region - Lower back or loin area between the ribs and hips; (flank - side regions of the lumbar areas)
Gluteal
Axial Region - Buttocks formed by the gluteal muscles
Sacroiliac
Axial Region - Between the sacrum and the pelvic bones
Clavicular
Upper Extremity - Collar Bone
Clavicular
Upper Extremity -
Acromial
Upper Extremity - Top of Shoulder
Scapular
Upper Extremity - Shoulder blade
Deltoid
Upper Extremity - Curve of the shoulder formed by the deltoid muscle
Brachial
Upper Extremity - arm
Cubital
Upper Extremity - Elbow
Antecubital
Upper Extremity - bend of elbow
Palmar
Upper Extremity - palm; anterior surface of the hand
Digital
Upper/Lower Extremity - Fingers or Toes; (phalangeal)
Digital
Upper Extremity - Fingers or Toes; (phalangeal)
Groin
Lower Extremity - Area between thigh and abdomen; (inguinal)
Pubic
Lower Extremity - Genital area over the pubic symphysis
Coxal
Lower Extremity - Hip
Femoral
Lower Extremity - Thigh
Pateller
Lower Extremity - Kneecap
Popliteal
Lower Extremity - behind the knee
Crural
Lower Extremity - Leg; between knee and ankle
Calf
Lower Extremity - Posterior Leg; (sural)
Tarsal
Lower Extremity - Ankle
Pedal
Lower Extremity - Foot or feet
Calcaneal
Lower Extremity - Heel
Dorsum
Lower Extremity - Top of foot
Plantar
Lower Extremity - Bottom or sole of foot (volar)
Hallux
Lower Extremity - Great Toe
Cortex
Outer region of an organ or structure (344salvo)
Medulla
Inner region of an organ or structure (344salvo)
Lumen
space with a hallow or tubular structure such as intestines or blood vessels (344 salvo)
Cell Membrane
(plasma) Membrane that separates the intracellular fluid from the extracellular fluid (345salvo). Semipermeable “gatekeeper”
Golgi Body
An organelle shaped like a series of separate horizontal membranous sacs stacked on top of each other; “packing and shipping” of a cell. Synthesize protiens and lipids, then pack and store them.
Endoplasmic Reticulumn
A network of curved sacs arranged in paralell rows from which pieces break off and become parts of other organelles. “roadways”
Lysosomes
Break down unneeded proteins within a cell. engulf and destroy pathogens by using digestive enzymes. Triggers cellular self-digestion such as the uterus shrinking down
Ribosomes
small granules of ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the cell’s “protein factories”
Cytoskeleton
The network of microfilaments and microtubules that provides an internal structure to many cells
Microvilli
fingerlike extensions of the cytoskeleton on the lining of the lower gastrointestinal tract to help increase its surface area and improve absorption of nutrients
Cilia
hairlike extensions of the cytoskeleton that link the upper respiratory tract to help sweep mucus toward the throat
Flagella
Whiplike extensions of the cytoskeleton. solitary. provides cellular locomotion. Ex. Sperm
Ectoderm
The outermost layer and gives rise to structures of the:
-nervous system (including special senses)
-epidermis
Mesoderm
Middle layer that gives rise to structures of the:
-muscles
-connective tissue (fascia, tendons, retinaculum, ligaments, cartilage, bone, blood and lymph, lung pleurae, pericardium, peritoneum, urogenital tract)
Endoderm
Inside layer. Becomes the epithelium that lines the body’s cavities, passages, and internal organs. (349salvo)
Muscular Tissue
Movement specialist of the body (354salvo).
Connective Tissue
The most abundant type of tissue that is formed of protein fibers within a matrix. (351salvo)
Functions:
-defends: blood clotting, inflammatory response.
-connects: tissues to each other (muscle to muscle, muscle to bone, bone to bone
-supports: framework for organs, glands, whole body.
-transports: nutrients via blood and waste
Types of Protein Fibers:
-Elastin: flexible and delicate
-Collagen: tough and durable. Most abundant (25%). Directly affects age
-Reticulin: delicate
Types of Tissue:
-Fibrous: ligaments and fascia is somewhere between bone and blood
#Loose:
#Adipose:
#Reticular
#Dense
-Bone: contains fewer fibers in a matrix that is dense, hard, and mineralized.
#compact
#spongy
-Cartilage: contains fewer fibers in a matrix that traps water to form a firm gel.
#Hyaline:
#Fibrocartilage
#Elastic
-Blood: lack of fibers is a liquid matrix except when it clots.
*amounts and types of proteins in various matrix types distinguish different tissue types.
Vascularity: varies. Tendons, ligaments, and cartilage have very low vascularity and directly effects healing. Very slow healing.
Fibroblasts
Precursor cells in connective tissue that produces all types of protein fibers. Contributes to wound healing and repair.
Types of protein fibers:’
-collagen
-elastin
-reticulin
Fibrous Connective Tissue
Connective tissue that is known as the packing material of the body.
Functions:
-Supports structures
-Attaches structures together
-Fills spaces between structures
-Keeps structures where they need to be.
Types:
#Loose Fibrous: connects adjacent structures to eachother and permits movement between them. Forms the hypodermics layer (superficial fascia), which attaches skin to underlying tissues and structures.
#Adipose: Serves as storage for food; insulation to conserve body heat; and support and protection for certain structures such as heart and kidneys
#Reticular: Provides framework for bone, bone marrow, lymph nodes, and organs such as liver and spleen
#Dense Regular: Compact strong bundles of fibers arranged in regular parallel rows and can resist pulling forces in 1 or 2 directions. Found in tendons and ligaments.
#Dense Irregular: Compact strong bundles of fibers interwoven into irregular patterns and resists pulling forces in all directions and found in deep fascial sheaths surrounding muscles, dermis, periosteum, outer capsules of some organs.
Bone
Hardest type of connective tissue that contains collagen and mineral salt crystals (makes up 50% of bone matrix contributing to its firmness). Part of the skeletal system.
Function:
-support
-protection
-muscle attachment sites.
-stores minerals and fats and produces blood cells
Types:
-compact: forms hard outer shell. Strongest forms of bone tissue
-spongy (cancellous bone): thin latticework beams.
Osteocytes
Mature bone cells that become embedded in collagen and mineral salt crystals.
Cartilage
Connective Tissue that is strong protective capable of within adding repeated stress. Tough rubbery matrix.
Found in thorax, joints, rigid structures (nose, ears, trachea)
Precursors found in baby bones.
Avascular (lacking blood supply). Nutrients reach cartilage by diffusion. Heals slowly if at all
Types:
-hyaline
-fibrocartilage
-elastic
Elastic Cartilage
Softest and most pliable of all types of cartilage. Shapes external nose, ears, and larynx (voice box)
Muscle Tissue
Movement specialist of the body.
Properties:
-excitability
-responds to stimulus: contracts (shortens) and stretch (lengthen)
Types:
-skeletal: (voluntary) attach to bones
-cardiac: (heart) wall
-smooth: (visceral) hallow visceral organs or tubes (digestive tract)
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
Most abundant types of Muscular tissue attached to bones. Voluntary
Functions:
-movement
-maintain posture
-produce heat
Composed of muscle fibers: long, cylindrical, threadlike. May contain nuclei located peripherally. Contain dark and light bands giving a striped appearance.
Cardiac Muscle
Muscle tissue located in the heart wall. Cells are mononucleated (but can also be multinucleated), H or Y shaped between intercalated disks that assist nerve impulse transmission to synchronize heart contractions.
Smooth Muscle
Visceral muscle. Muscle Tissue located in the hallow organs (stomach, bladder, uterus, within tubes). Long, narrow, spindle shaped. Contain 1 nucleus. Smooth appearance but not striated. Involuntary. Created for long, sustained contractions.
Inflammation
Protective response to damaged tissue.
Purpose: to eliminate pathogens and foreign agents, remove damaged tissues, create an environment that maximizes tissue repair.
Local/Acute inflammation
Characteristics:
-Swelling
-Heat
-A loss of Function
-Redness
-Pain
Regeneration
-Growth of new functional Tissue
-Fibroblasts stimulate collegian for wound closure
-Granulation (new tissue grows from base upward
-scar tissue occurs from fibrous connective tissue
Remodeling
New connective tissue replacing epithelium, forming a scar.
