16 markers

Question 1

describe and evaluate the wmm of memory

Answer 1

-suggested as a further development of multi-store model by Baddeley and Hitch.
-STM focus with 4 stores, phonological loop, central executive , visuo-spatial sketchpad and episodic buffer.
-strengths: clear evidence to support Shallice and Warrington’s KF study damaged STM but still visual info but not verbal and supports separate components of STM.
-provides explanation for dual tasks and the fight for limited resources from one store Baddeley FH experiment able to do the first task but not the second.
-weaknesses: crucial supporting evidence lacks ecological validity for example FH baddeley would not happen IRL on a daily basis and don’t help to prove the WMM represents typical everyday memory function.
-criticised for being too simplistic as does not explain LTM for example Tulvig suggests 3 different types of LTM episodic, procedural and semantic partial explanation and is incomplete.

Question 2

describe and evaluate anger management as a treatment for offending.

Answer 2

-AO1, cognitive preparation: offender reflects on past experience and considers typical patterns of anger and identify systems which act as a triggers.
Skill acquisition: offenders introduced to a range of techniques which allow them to deal with their anger situations rationally and effectively e.g positive self talk breathing exercises.
application practice.
STRENGTHS:
-good supporting evidence from different researchers keen et al 2000, young offenders studied their progress in anger management, final outcomes were generally positive and had greater self-control and awareness of their anger and Ireland compared two groups one receiving anger management therapy, 92% showed improvement.
NEGATIVES:
-using an application practice in therapy does not allow for true emotions in a violent or angry situation in real life, as it is very hard to imagine such emotions, this can therefore be a criticised as a fully functioning method as offenders won’t know if it fully worked until in that situation and it might not have worked due to the inability to replicate the emotions.
-can be expensive or hard to get hold of specialists if every prisoner needs it or contrast prisoners might not actually have anger issues or have committed a violent crime.

Question 3

outline and compare two explanations for offending.

Answer 3

-Atavistic form, Lombroso 18 characteristics different because criminals evolved slowly than everyone else.
-genes, CHD13 and MAOA.
DIFFERENCES:
- atavistic form was the first step into biological reasoning, whereas genetic explanation is fully a biological approach scientific, and based on credible reasoning however both showcase biological determinism.
-good evidence for genetic explanation with Raine having reviewed lots of different twin studies and concluded that the concordance rate for criminality was DZ 21% and MZ 52%.
-large ethical issues around atavistic racism but not for genetics.

Question 4

discuss two ways of dealing with recidivism.

Answer 4

-anger management: - cognitive preparation: offender reflects on past experience and considers typical patterns of anger and identify systems which act as a triggers. Skill acquisition: offenders introduced to a range of techniques which allow them to deal with their anger situations rationally and effectively e.g positive self talk breathing exercises and then application practice.
-custodial sentencing, deterrence retribution rehabilitation and capacitation.
-Token economy.
EVAL:
-seen to work as reduces anger needed to commit violent crime Ireland and Keen.
-however, restorative justice seen to be more effective at limiting recidivism with it being suggested 85% victim satisfaction and reduces frequency by 14% with custodial sentencing having 2013 57% reoffend year after release.
-Cohen and Filipczak 1971 showed that a token economy group showed more desirable behaviour in an adult prison and within 2 years of release the token economy group were less likely to reoffend but after 3 years went back to national levels.

Question 5

discuss Eysenck’s theory of criminl personality.

Answer 5

-proposed EPI and that high levels of psychoticism extraversion and neuroticism contribute to criminality.
-NEGATIVE:
- EPI can be seen to not be fully reliable as answers can change based on emotions and this effects the validity and reliability of Eysencks supporting study.
-shown that other evidence suggests otherwise, Farrington revised a range of studies and concluded that only psychoticism effects and Bartol studied hispanic and African American NY prison and all offenders less extraverted than non offenders.
POS:
-has supporting evidence for Eysenck and compared 2070 prisoners scores on EPI with 2422 male control participants and prisoners scored higher overall.

Question 6

discuss biological explanations for offending.

Answer 6

-genetics-MAOA, release serotonin and MAOA.
-brain regions like the pre-frontal cortex, amigdala.
EVAL:
-evidence from raine, reviewed range of studies on the delinquent behaviour of twins MZ concordance 52% and DZ 21%, so not fully biological and can be explained by environmental and small sample.
-notion of a criminal gene presents a dilemma legal system is based on the premise of free will only with mental health can you claim no free will so raises ethical questions around what society does with people who are suspected of carrying environmental genes and implications for sentences, -Tiihonen analysed genetic make up of 900 criminals. findings reveal that offenders were 13% more likely to have a violent offending past with CDH13 and MAOA genes.
-prefrontal cortex evidence, raine cited 71 different studies showing evidence that murders, psychos etc have reduced function and bad as it controls regulating emotional controlling behaviour and impulsive but no direct cause and effect.

Question 7

discuss psychological effects of custodial sentencing

Answer 7

-stress and depression
-institutionalisation: inability to function outside of prison due to adapting everyday prison life - this leads to the offender lacking conforming to laws and also simple everyday things such as working and socialising with people.
-brutalisation: acts as breeding ground for criminal criminal activity 70% of young offenders reoffend with first year of release.
EVAL:
-problems with direct cause and effect with prisoners might already have psych issues or depression.
-custodial sentencing can be highly effective in it’s different aims, but it is hard to drop recidivism rates whereas restorative justice lowers it by 14%.
-clear evidence for stress and depression in a prison environment is Zimbardo although there are issues with his study

Question 8

discuss and evaluate cognitive explanations for offending.

Answer 8

-role of levels of moral reasoning Kohlberg
-cognitive biases, minimalisation and agressive.
EVAL:
-sample size focuses on males, but has been replicated in multiple different countries so avoids ethnocentrism.
-cognitive biases support Juste and Babaree.
-Hollin et al supports Kohlberg as they found that criminals tend to be in lower stages of moral reasoning compared to non-criminals.

Question 9

describe and evaluate Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation.

Answer 9

-maternal deprivation: emotional and intellectual consequences of separation between a child and their mother, continuous care is essential and prolonged care can have serious emotional and intellectual damage to children’s development, linked to mono tropic theory, critical period of 2- 2 and a half years.
-effects of development: intellectual development, deprived of suitable emotional care would suffer low IQ. emotional development affection-less psychopathy.
EVAL:
-supporting evidence from Bowlby 44 thieves displayed affectionless psychopathy.
-can be flawed though as sample all boys and really small, hard to apply to one country let alone every country, maybe have western bias.
-Lewis, replicated 44 thieves study on larger scale with 500 young people, early prolonged separation from mother didn’t predict criminality or difficulty forming intimate relationships and suggests that other factors may effect outcome of maternal deprivation.
-research has shown later that from critical period damage is not inevitable and ethically puts strain on mothers who are not in the position to spend long periods of time with their child
-bowlby himself conducted the interview and might have shown bias

Question 10

Discuss the effects of institutionalisation. refer to the studies of Romanian orphans in your answer.

Answer 10

AO1: institutionalisation, effects of growing up in an institution for continuous periods of time where very little emotional care or stimulation is provided largely seen in Romania
-Rutter: 165 Romanian orphans adopted in Britain were longitudinally assessed for physical, cognitive and emotional development at 11 years old adopted before 6mo mean IQ of 102 compared to adopted after 2 years had a mean IQ of 77 and disinhibited attachments at 26% related to age of adoption and those after 6mo were clingy, attention seeking etc
EVAL:
-Morison and Elwood also successfully repeated the same study of romanian orphans being adopted to Canada.
-led to successful practical applications and led to improvements in how children are looked after in institutions with 1 or 2 key workers assigned to each child.
-negative of Rutter’s study is that the children were not randomly assigned to conditions and did not interfere with adoption process so the children adopted earlier may have typically be the ones who are more ‘appealing’ to the parents and be more social and later ones may be less sociable confounding variable. limitation because the conclusions may not be valid, therefore may not be strong evidence.
-effects of institutionalisation, Sfoue and Quinton.

Question 11

discuss the cognitive approach to treating depression

Answer 11

-Becks CBT by negative triad of the world, self and future aims to identify irrational and negative thoughts and challenge them, focus on the negative and have faulty information processing
-Ellis’s REBT extends ABC model of explaining depression to ABCDE model DE= dispute and effect. Ellis believed that irrational thoughts are the main causes of all types of emotional distress and behavioural disorders and through REBT able to challenge and get better.
EVAL:
-CBT is effective it can work for individuals and don’t have to depend on drugs means it also has a positive effect on economy, shown through studies by March Et Al 2007.
-negative is that it may not work for all cases, with some cases being unable to motivate themselves or do homework tasks, so cannot be applied to everyone with depression.
-limitation is that drugs might be seen to work slightly better, or far better when paired together Keller et al found that recovery rates when just drugs 55% compared to CBT 52% and 85% when used together.
swakolski

Question 12

outline and evaluate different biological explanations for OCD

Answer 12

Genetics- have focused on identifying specific candidate genes which are implicated as it is a polygenic condition and several genes are involved like COMT and SERT, COMT and Sapap3 is involved in regulating dopamine and some variations of the gene can lead to higher levels. Also use twin studies to show that genes play a part in OCD.
-EVAL:
-supporting evidence from Nestatdt et al 2000 general OCD rate 2-3% a review published twin studies into OCD found 54/80 68% concordance for MZ twins and 9/29 for DZ twins 31%, but not totally genes.
-supporting evidence from Feng et al 2007 found mice lacking the gene showed high levels of anxiety and pulled out their fur when given sapap3 protein however the symptoms disappeared, hard to relate to humans as different physiology.
-individuals may gain a vunerability towards OCD through genes that is then triggered by an environmental stressor, with Cromer 2007 found that over half the OCD paitents in their sample had a traumatic event in the past and OCD was more severe in those with more than one trauma this means that it may not just be fully genetic.

Question 13

discuss the role of endogenous pacemakers in control of one or more biological rhythm.

Answer 13

-Endogenous pacemakers are internal biological clocks that manage our rhythms. In humans, the main biological clock is the suprachiasmatic nucleus which is located in the hypothalamus and controls circadian rhythms.
-located above the optical chiasm. light enters into the retina and is transferred through the optical nerve to the SCN which stimulates the release of hormones such as cortisol and melatonin in the pineal gland, thus maintaining our sleep-wake cycle.
-EVAL:
-suggested that endogenous pacemakers have had an adaptive value in controlling our bio rhythms like sleep-wake cycle, shown through research by Morgan 1995 who bred mutant hamsters with 20 hour SCN then implanted into normal and displayed mutant rhythms.
-however, difficulty in generalising findings from animal studies to humans due to difference and huge ethical issues
-good supporting evidence from Siffre who reported a case study of his own experiences in an underground cave for 2 months, his circadian sleep-wake cycle generally adjusted to 25 hours and Ascoff and weaver suggest that they play a role in controlling circadian rhythms.

Question 14

describe and evaluate interference

Answer 14

-PROACTIVE: OLDER memory INTERFERES with the NEWER one
-RETROACTIVE: NEWER memory INTERFERES with the OLDER one
EFFECTS OF SIMILARITY
MCGEOCH + MCDONALD (1931) = studied RETROACTIVE interference by changing the SIMILARITY between TWO LISTS of 10 WORDS
G1: SYNONYMS, G2: ANTONYMS, G3: TOTALLY UNRELATED WORDS, G4: NONSENSE SYLLABLES, G5: THREE-DIGIT NUMBERS, G6: NO NEW LIST then recalled THE ORIGINAL LIST MOST SIMILAR = HIGHEST INTERFERENCE
AO3
-EVIDENCE FROM LAB STUDIES: all irrelevant influence/variables are CONTROLLED – VAILD explanation e.g. MCGEOCH AND MCDONALD
ARTIFICIAL METHODS: USE words NOT things we learn in everyday life e.g. people’s faces/birthdays = lacks EV
-REAL-LIFE STUDIES: BADDELEY + HITCH asked RUGBY players to remember the names of the teams played that season – results weren’t based of HOW LONG AGO the matches were but the NUMBER they had played in the MEAN TIME
-TIME BETWEEN LEARNING: for example: experiment – 20 minutes given to remember then immediate recall but EVERYDAY LIFE – have a longer time = low EV

Question 15

describe and evaluate retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting

Answer 15

ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE (ESP)
* if a CUE is to help us to recall information, it has to be PRESENT at ENCODING and at RETRIEVAL – if not then FORGETTING occurs
CONTEXT-DEPENDENT (GODDEN and BADDELEY)
* DEEP SEA DIVERS had to either LEARN and RECALL on LAND, LEARN on WATER/ RECALL on LAND, LEARN on LAND/ RECALL on WATER + LEARN and RECALL on WATER – NON MATCHING was 40% LOWER
AO3
* SUPPORTING EVIDENCE: such as GODDEN AND BADDELEY
* CONTEXT EFFECTS: BADDELEY – the contexts would have to be VERY DIFFERENT to have an effect – hard to find a much different setting of land than water = no REAL LIFE APPLICATION
* RECALL VS RECOGNITION: GODDEN AND BADDELEY repeated the study using RECOGNITION – participants recognised a word from the list and not retrieving = NO CONTEXT DEPENDENT MEMORY = only works for RECALL
* PROBLEM WITH ESP: CANNOT be tested and leads to circular testing – assume cue was/wasn’t encoded when learning

Question 16

describe and evaluate research into the influence of misleading info on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Answer 16

Loftus & Palmer (1974) misleading questions by using three groups of students who watched a one-minute video of a car accident what speed was the car going when it hit/contacted/bumped/smashed.
-One limitation of Loftus and Palmer’s research is that their study lacks population validity. Their experiment consisted of 150 American students. It is reasonable to argue that the students in their experiment were less experienced drivers, who may be less accurate at estimating speeds. Consequently, we are unable to generalise the results to other populations, for example, older and more experienced drivers, who may not be affected by misleading questions in the same way.
-Furthermore, Loftus and Palmer’s research has questionable ecological validity. questioning participants about everyday events like a car crash appears to be a genuine measure of eyewitness testimony. However, the participants watched a video of a car crash and witnessed the events unfold from start to finish. In everyday reports of car accidents, witnesses rarely see the whole event; they are either involved in the event directly or see a small part of the event happen in their peripheral vision demonstrates experimental reductionism: the complex process of memory is reduced to the effect of the wording of a leading question (IV) on the eyewitness memory (DV). Therefore, their results do not reflect everyday car accidents, and we are unable to conclude if the effect of leading questions is the same outside the laboratory.
-Gabbert et al. (2003) investigated the effect of post-event discussion. Her participants watched a video of a girl stealing money. However, participants in the co-witness group were told that they had watched the same video; however, they had in fact seen different perspectives. 71% of the witnesses in the co-witness group recalled information they had not seen.
- we are unable to conclude why the distortion occurs. The distortion could be the result of poor memory, where people assimilate new information into their own accounts of the event and are unable to distinguish between what they have seen and what they have heard. On the other hand, it could be that the distortion occurs due to conformity and the social pressure from the co-witness. Therefore, in light of these issues and those highlighted in Loftus and Palmer’s research, further research is required in the real-world to demonstrate the exact effect on misleading information on the accuracy of EWT.

Question 17

describe and evaluate research that has investigated the influence of anxiety on accuracy of EWT

Answer 17

ANXIETY HAS A NEGATIVE EFFECT LOFTUS:
* BELIEVED they would be in a LAB STUDY AND were seated in a WAITING ROOM WHILE LISTENING TO AN ARGUMENT
* LOW-ANXIETY: MAN WALKED THROUGH W/ PEN AND GREASE ON HAND
* HIGH-ANXIETY: BREAKING GLASS + MAN W/ PAPER KNIFE AND BLOOD
* picked man from 50 PHOTOS – 49% CORRECT IN LOW, 33% CORRECT IN HIGH
* TUNNEL THEORY
ANXIETY HAS A NEGATIVE EFFECT – YUILLE + CUTSHALL (1986)
* REAL-LIFE SHOOTING in a GUN SHOP- 13/20 AGREED, INTERVIEWS 4-5 MTHS AFTER and were COMPARED to the POLICE INTERVIEWS – ACCURACY determined by NO. OF DETAILS RECALLED + ASKED to rate the STRESS on a 7 POINT SCALE + asked if they had EMOTIONAL PROBLEMS since the incident
* VERY ACCURATE AND LIMITED CHANGE IN 5 MTHS BUT NOT MINOR DETAILS THOSE W/ MORE STRESS = MORE ACCURATE – 88%/75%
INVERTED-U - YERKES + DODSON // DEFFENBACHER
* RELATIONSHIP between EMOTIONAL AROUSAL and PERFORMANCE is an INVERTED U
* APPLIED TO EWT: LOW ANXIETY = LOW LEVELS of RECALL ACCURACY, memory becomes MORE ACCURATE as ANXIETY INCREASES but when it reaches OPTIMAL LEVEL it starts to DECREASE in ACCURACY
AO3
* WEAPON FOCUS EFFECT MAY NOT BE RELEVANT: PICKEL: used scissors, a hand gun, a wallet or raw chicken in a HAIRDRESSING SALON video – poorer EWT if highly UNUSUAL CONDITIONS = not fear
* FIELD STUDIES SOMETIMES LACK CONTROL: something could have happened between the incident and interview e.g. DISCUSSIONS, MEDIA, INTERVIEWS = EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
* ETHICAL ISSUES: creating anxiety = UNETHICAL – causes HARM so we should use REAL LIFE STUDIES as they have ALREADY WITNESSED the event = more beneficial
* INVERTED-U EXPLANATION IS TOO SIMPLISTIC: anxiety is too difficult to MEASURE, anxiety has many elements – cognitive, behavioural, emotional and physical – but it only looks at PHYSICAL + someone’s ‘LOW’ anxiety may be someone else’s ‘HIGH’ anxiety

Question 18

describe and evaluate the cognitive interview as a way of improving the accuracy of EWT

Answer 18

THE COGNITIVE INTERVIEW – GIESELMAN
-REPORT EVERYTHING – may trigger other details
-REINSTATE THE CONTEXT – go back to the area in their head
-REVERSE THE ORDER – different chronological order so they don’t report expectations
-CHANGE PERSPECTIVE – to someone else’s to avoid schemas and expectations
-TO FOCUS OF SOCIAL DYNAMICS – WHEN TO MAKE EYE CONTACT + REDUCING EYEWITNESS ANXIETY, MINIMISING DISTRACTIONS, GETTING WITNESS TO SPEAK SLOWLY, OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
AO3
* TIME-CONSUMING: longer than a STANDARD POLICE INTERVIEW + involves needing SPECIAL TRAINING = MAY NOT HAVE THE TIME AND IS VERY EXPENSIVE
* SOME ELEMENTS MAY BE MORE VALUABLE THAN OTHERS: all are equally valuable and better than the standard interview but a COMBINATION of REPORT EVERYTHING and CONTEXT REINSTATEMENT produced BETTER THAN OTHERS
* SUPPORT FOR THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ECI: META-ANAYLSIS of 50 studies and the ECI CONSISTENTLY provided more CORRECT information than a STANDARD INTERVIEW
* VARIATIONS OF CI: they used the CI SLIGHTLY DIFFERENTLY or used the ECI – same is true in real life – some techniques MAY WORK BETTER THAN OTHERS
* CI CREATES AN INCREASE IN INACCURATE INFORMATION: KOHNKEN ET AL – found an 81% increase of CORRECT information but also an 61% increase of INCORRECT information when ECI was compared to a standard interview

Question 19

discuss the multi-store model of memory

Answer 19

-process is linear, SM, STM LTM.
-tons of supporting evidence to suggest different stores and capacities for each store, Baddeley, peterson miller etc.
-supporting evidence from clive wearing as a failure to encode new memories.
-KF largely doesn’t support MSM, suggests multiple types of LTM.
-Tulvig experiment episodic at front and semantic at back.

Question 20

outline and evaluate research into capacity and coding of memory

Answer 20

coding: involves sensory LTM and STM
-Sensory is encoded according to modality like haptic, ionic and iconic.
-STM is encoded acoustically and LTM is semantically.
-Baddeley researched using remembering of words.
AO3: one strength is that he showed a clear difference in the coding between the memory stores, controlled and standardised experiment which enabled cause and effect to be established and was also used to form MSM later on, reliable as it can be repeated later on.
-one weakness is that is uses artificial material which lacks ecological validity, as we do not come into contact with word lists like this on a day to day basis, therefore limits the generalisability of the results.
-CAPACITY: refers to the amount of information that can be stored in each memory store, STM Miller and Bahrick, sensory is high.
-a limitation of the research is that it uses artificial material this is an issue as we do not remember single digits like this on a day to day basis, apart from like phone number therefore limits generalisability and ecologically validity.
-strength of Miller is that easily replicated and easily scientific.

Question 21

describe and evaluate different types of LTM

Answer 21

-procedual memories, episodic and semantic,
AO3:
-research to support from Tulvig, performed brain scans on participants and found that when using episodic memory part of the pre-frontal cortex was active compared to when participants were using semantic memory when the back cortex was active.
-support also comes from Clive wearing who had empaired episodic memories but semantic and procedual memories were intact as he could play piano, therefore suggests that each memory is a separate store.
-Real world application - we are able to understand individuals with memory loss. Ageing people lose a certain type of episodic memory (they can recall long ago events, but not recent ones). Distinguishing between the types of LTM allows for specific treatments to be developed.

Question 22

discuss the effectiveness of the cognitive interview at improving the accuracy of eye witness recall

Answer 22

-report everything, context reinstatement, recall from changed perspective and different order.
AO3- support has shown that technique can increase accuracy of eyewitness testimony Kohnken found that CI increased accuracy by 34%, however found that there was an increase in inaccurate info recalled aswell.
-another limitation is that the interview may only be useful when interviewing those over 6, as Gieselman found that they recalled things less accurately.
-time consuming and takes long to train therefore unable to tell if interviews are carried out properly.
-ethical issues

Question 23

outline and evaluate variables effecting conformity

Answer 23

-Asch took 123 male participants and sat them down in a room of 6-8 confederates, where the pps was sat either last or second to last in the line. had the confederates give out obviously wrong answers in 12/18 of these trials. 75% of participants conformed at least once, whilst 25% did not conform at all. In addition.
-Asch also introduced variables in which could affect the conformity. These variations were group size, unanimity and task difficulty. He found that within the group size variation, conformity was lower. it was also concluded that conformity caps after 3 pps and does not make a difference on the conformity rate. With unanimity, conformity dropped to 5.5% when 1 conf. went against the group with the correct answer.
-Asch’s study was deemed androcentric and had low population validity. This means the results couldn’t be generalised to the wider female population in relation to individual differences. all of the pps were American means we can’t generalise to other cultures as we’re unsure whether they’d behave in the same or in a similar manner to how Americans do. This, in turn, makes the explanation limited.
- the experiment being deemed high in control over its variables. The study in itself is also repeatable due to this high control. However, it’s also repeatable because of Asch’s use of a lab study lowers the ecological validity of the study due to the use of an artificial environment, as the pps could have realised what was really happening because of this, but also because of how unrealistic the study was as a vision test
-deception

Question 24

outline and evaluate resistance to social influence

Answer 24

-social support, Asch’s (1951) variations. In one of the variations, one of the confederates was instructed to give the correct answer throughout. In this variation the rate of conformity dropped to 5%. This demonstrates that if the real participant has support for their belief (social support), then they are likely more likely to resist the pressure to conform.
-largely also supported by Milgram’s re-experiment, paired with two additional confederates, the two additional confederates refused to go on and withdrew from the experiment early. In this variation, percentage of real participants who proceeded to the full 450 volts, dropped from 65% (in the original) to 10%.
-however lack of ecological validity and deception and ethical issues .
-also seen through locus’s of control and oliner and oliner

Question 25

describe and evaluate research into minority influence

Answer 25

-consistency, commitment and flexibility snowball effect and crypto-amnesia.
-moscovici colour slides, all women though so not fully generalisable and artificial task.
-many examples within history which show minority influence to have effected the majority, through Rosa Parks and Civil rights activists, and governments eventually passed the Civil Rights Acts.
-clark, through being consistent.
-Mackie believes that majorities may create deeper processing than minorities as it forces us to deeply consider their view, suggests minority view alone is not valid for social change.

Question 26

describe and evaluate schaffer and emersons stages of attachment

Answer 26

-studied 60 Glasgow babies from working class backgrounds, visited every month for the first year and then again at 18 months, measured attachment through asking the mother questions, then were able to develop stages of attachment: pre-attachment, indiscriminate, discriminate, specific and multiple.
AO3: may be culture bias, van ljzendoom found that culture plays a part in how and when we form attachments and in many non-western societies babies have multiple carers and so multiple attachments are formed earlier.
-This research has good external validity, as the families were in their homes, and the majority of the observations were done during regular activities. This means that the infants’ behaviours were unlikely to be affected by the presence of the observers, and they would have behaved normally. This means the study has mundane realism and ecological validity. However, it suggests that the self-report method was used.
- the study lacks validity. This is decreased as all of the infants involved in the study came from Glasgow and were from working class families; the large sample size reduces the strength of the findings. Thus, they can only apply to a limited amount of people, lacking universality. Furthermore, the research lacks temporal validity, as parenting techniques have changing since the 1950s, when the study was conducted.
-In addition, the self-report method raises issues and could have resulted in inaccurate data collection; the parents were so busy that they may not have included the full details. Thus, suggesting the study lacks internal validity. Furthermore, the data may have also been subject to social desirability bias, in that they would change their reports, so they appear closer to what they see as acceptable e.g. the infant responds best to the

Question 27

describe and evaluate the strange situation as a method of assessing types of attachment

Answer 27

-observed 106 infants explored 4 behaviours with 8 stages found 3 attachments 70% were secure 15% insecure avoidant and resistant, concluded that the way mother acts towards child needs has an impact on behaviour on child and is seen as maternal sensitivity hypothesis.
AO3:
-could be seen as ethnocentric cross cultural research has shown that western values here are used to judge attachment types which is an imposed etic, Takashi found japanese babies had high percentage of IR but rare for mothers to be separated from mothers.
-lacks validity lab was unfamiliar to participants and mothers may have shown demand characteristics or behaved differently therefore distorts results.
-Kagan temperant hypothesis.
-unethical for children

Question 28

outline and evaluate the behavioural approach to treating phobias

Answer 28

-flooding and systematic desensitisation, SD works by classical conditioning and that a phobia can be unlearnt involves 3 stages, flooding quick exposure to phobia.
-McGarth found that SD is 75% effective when treating phobias and Choy found that both were effective but flooding more so.
-unethical, largely with flooding especially in treating childrens phobias and may lead to trauma or no completion.
-might not have to be too motivated in comparison to other treatments for depression or OCD.
-Flooding is a cost-effective method of treatment, and it is much quicker than alternatives. It allows the symptoms to move away fast, meaning there are less sessions, and a smaller fee. This means it has more beneficial short-term effects than SD, and patients may be able to recover quicker

Question 29

outline and evaluate factors effecting EWT

Answer 29

-leading questions, loftus and Palmer 40.1% smashed and 30% for contacted.
-anxiety, Yuille and Curtishall interviewed 5 months after a bank robbery and still accurate. Opposed by loftus and man with pen and man with knife, 33% recall for knife and 49% for pen, suggested weapons effect and Yerkes Dodson law.
-Post event discussion, Gabbert 70% people changed after discussion.
AO3:
1- LQ led to new techniques to be discovered to help like the CI by Gieselman, low ecological validity but increased scientific.
2- conflicting evidence, evidence could suggest psych issues so ethics.
3-lacks ecological validity.

Question 30

outline and evaluation explanations as to why we conform

Answer 30

-normative social influence, informational, conforming to social roles given to us, internalisation.
-sherif, internalisation and informational. normative, Asch. social roles zimbardo.
-AO3, all male sample zimbardo, small sample, seen to follow the orders of Zimbardo, unethical one left after 36 hours.
-sherif, variables were strictly controlled, third variable shouldn’t have influenced and we should be able to establish cause and effect. method was replicable, repeated measures meant participant variables were kept consistent. deception, participants believed the stationary light was moving. narrow sample only males and reduces the generalisability. artificial situations, low ecological validity.
-Asch, Due to the use of 123 males, Asch’s study was deemed androcentric and had low population validity. This means the results couldn’t be generalised to the wider female population in relation to individual differences. In addition, all of the pps were American – this means we can’t generalise to other cultures as we’re unsure whether they’d behave in the same or in a similar manner to how Americans do. This, in turn, makes the explanation limited. -Asch however, chose to study one variable at a time – this resulted in the experiment being deemed high in control over its variables. This helped Asch measure what was intended which lead to high internal validity. The study in itself is also repeatable due to this high control. It singles the variables out which means future researchers can take this on and repeat the study. However, it’s also repeatable because of Asch’s use of a lab study – unfortunately this lowers the ecological validity of the study due to the use of an artificial environment, as the pps could have realised what was really happening because of this, but also because of how unrealistic the study was – during a vision test, you wouldn’t be sat in a room with 7-9 other men and you wouldn’t be asked to identify the target line as this would not accurately represent whether your eyesight is poor or not.
-deception

Question 31

outline and evaluate the role of the father

Answer 31

-Schaffer and Emerson found that primary attachments are formed with the mother 65% of the time, and fathers are in the multiple attachment stage. 29% of infants have formed these multiple attachments within a month, and most have within a year. Before this, thy would solely rely on the mother. It is also shown that fathers offer qualitatively different care to the mother. Despite this, it has been proven that primary carers are not based on gender, but whoever is most sensitive to the babies needs. Therefore, the father could be the primary attachment figure.
-There is conflicting evidence around the importance of the father. Grossman’s study showed that fathers who were secondary attachment figures, had an important role in the child’s development, and they are seen as being different to the mother.
-Other research suggests that fathers are not able to form a nurturing and sensitive attachment. Hardy found that fathers are less able to detect low level of infant distress, compared to mothers. This could be due to the low levels of oestrogen in males, which means that they are not biologically equipped to form close attachments with their children. Therefore, the father is unable to provide an equal role in the child’s development. There is further evidence which shows that mothers and fathers behave in different ways. Particularly, mothers have hormones which encourage caring, suggesting biological factors have an impact. Therefore, the role of the father is still disputed. However, it has been shown that gender does not have an impact on children, and those who grow up in single parent households and same-sex households develop the same as other children. This suggests there are social constraints on who is the primary figure