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BioMed S2 > 14. Nervous System II > Flashcards

14. Nervous System II Flashcards

1
Q

What does the CNS consist of?

A

Brain
Spinal cord

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2
Q

What is the brain protected by?

A

Cranium
Cranial meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Blood brain barrier (BBB)

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3
Q

What is the spinal cord protected by?

A

Vertebral column
Meninges

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4
Q

What are meninges?

A

Layers of connective tissue that form protective membranes
They surround and encase the brain and spinal cord within the skull and spinal column

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5
Q

What are the three layers of meninges that cover the brain and spinal cord?

A

Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater

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6
Q

What is the dura mater?

“Tough mother”

A

Tough outer layer
Has 2 layers in the brain

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7
Q

What do the two layers of dura mater in the brain do?

A

Create venous sinuses

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8
Q

What do venous sinuses do?

A

AKA Bridging veins
Allow blood to drain out of the brain into the jugular veins

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9
Q

What is the arachnoid mater made up of?

A

Collagen and elastic fibres

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10
Q

What is the subdural space between the dura mater and arachnoid mater filled with?

A

Interstitial fluid

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11
Q

What is the pia mater?

A

Innermost layer of the meninges
Thin, transparent and highly vascular
In direct contact with the brain
Follows contours of the brain

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12
Q

What does the pia mater contain?

A

Blood vessels that supply the spinal cord

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13
Q

What is the subarachnoid space between the arachnoid mater and pia mater filled with?

A

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

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14
Q

What is a subdural haematoma?

A

Venous bleed in space below the dura mater
Develops slowly

Can happen in Alzheimers disease due to brain shrinkage

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15
Q

What is a subarachnoid haemorrhage?

A

Arterial bleed in the space below the arachnoid mater
Rapid development

From Berry aneurism
Feels like a thunderclap headache

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16
Q

What is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?

A

Clear, colourless* liquid that protects the brain and spinal cord from mechanical and immunological injury
Nourishes the brain and spinal cord

*contains no blood cells

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17
Q

What does CSF consist of?

A

Filtered blood
Water with ions and glucose

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18
Q

Why is CSF colourless?

A

Blood cells are too large to filter through

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19
Q

Where can you find CSF?

A

Subarachnoid space
Ventricles* in brain
Central canal of spinal cord

Fourth ventricle (back of brain) used in cranio-sacral therapy

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20
Q

Where is CSF produced ?

A

Ependymal cells

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21
Q

How much CSF is produced a day?

A

500ml

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22
Q

How much CSF can be found in the brain?

A

150ml

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23
Q

What happens to excess CSF that can’t fill around the brain?

A

Gradually absorbed back into blood

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24
Q

What are the functions of CSF?

A

Supports/protects the brain and spinal cord
Shock absorber
Keeps them moist
Circulates nutrients and waste
Maintains uniform pressure around brain
Maintains optimal chemical environment for nerve signalling

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25
Q

Where does blood flow to the brain from?

A

Vertebral arteries (x2)
Carotid arteries (x2)

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26
Q

What percentage of the body’s oxygen and glucose does the brain use at rest?

A

20%

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27
Q

What does the blood brain barrier do?

A

Protects brain from toxins, harmful substances and bacteria

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28
Q

How does the BBB protect the brain from toxins, harmful substances and bacteria?

A

By maintaining tightness of capillaries
By maintaining junctions between cells

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29
Q

What maintains the BBB?

A

Astrocytes that wrap around the capillaries

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30
Q

What substances can transport across the BBB?

A
  • Lipid soluble substances: alcohol,
    anaesthetics
  • Glucose (active transport)
  • Gases
  • Ions
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31
Q

What substances can’t transport across the BBB easily?

A

Proteins
Some drugs

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32
Q

What are the four areas of the brain?

A

Brainstem
Diencephalon
Cerebrum
Cerebellum

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33
Q

What are the parts of the brainstem?

A

Midbrain
Pons*
Medulla oblongata

‘Bridge’

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34
Q

What are the parts of the diencephalon*?

interbrain

A

Thalamus*
Hypothalamus
Epithalamus

*80%, core of the brain

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35
Q

Where can you find the brainstem?

A

Top of the spinal cord

Continuation of the spinal cord

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36
Q

What does the brainstem pass through?

A

Foramen magnum (large hole)

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37
Q

Which centres are located in the medulla oblongata?

A

Respiratory centre
Cardiac centre

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38
Q

What does the medulla oblongata control?

A

Breathing
Cardiac output
Heart rate
Blood pressure

Vomiting reflex
Coughing reflex
Hiccupping reflex

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39
Q

Which cranial nerves are located in the medulla oblongata?

A

9-12

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40
Q

Which tract is located in the medulla oblongata?

A

Corticospinal tract (motor)

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41
Q

What does the pons control?

A

Breathing

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42
Q

Which cranial nerves are located in the pons?

A

5-8

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43
Q

Which tract does the pons relay?

A

Motor

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44
Q

What does the midbrain contain?

A

Substantia nigra

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45
Q

What is the substantia nigra?

A

Large, darkly-pigmentated area

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46
Q

What does the substantia nigra contain ?

A

Dopamine releasing neurons that control subconcious muscle activities

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47
Q

What does the midbrain do?

A

Controls eye reflexes and tracking
Controls head and neck movements
Auditory tracts
Transfers motor tracts

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48
Q

Which cranial nerves are located in the midbrain?

A

III - Oculomotor
IV - Trochlear

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49
Q

What is the thalamus?

A

Major part of the diencephelon
Relay centre of the brain

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50
Q

What percentage of the diencephalon is made up of the thalamus?

A

80%

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51
Q

What does the thalamus do?

A

Relays sensory information to the cerebrum
Integrates sensory and motor information

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52
Q

What does the epithalamus do?

A

Connects limbic system to other parts of the brain

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53
Q

Which gland is located in the epithalamus?

A

Pineal gland

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54
Q

Which hormone does the pineal gland secrete?

A

Melatonin

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55
Q

What does the hypothalamus do?

A 
Regulates hormones and homeostasis
Controls body temperature
Regulates emotional/behavioural patterns
Regulates appetite/satiety
Regulates circadian rhythm
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56
Q

What type of information does the hypothalamus receive?

A

Sensory

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57
Q

Which nervous system does the hypothalamus control?

A

Autonomic nervous system

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58
Q

Where is the cerebellum located?

A

Inferior and posterior aspect of the cranium

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59
Q

How many neurons can be found in the cerebellum?

A

50 billion*
Majority are interneurons

*Half the total number found in the brain

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60
Q

What are the functions of the cerebellum?

A
  • Balance/posture (propreoception)
  • Co-ordinates smooth sequences of movement to ‘skilled’ levels
  • Error correction during ongoing movement (learning an instrument, learning to walk)
  • Cognition, thought and language processing
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61
Q

What can damage the cerebellum?

A

Chronic alcohol abuse
Coeliac’s disease
Thiamine (B1) deficiency (malnourished)

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62
Q

What are the symptoms of a cerebellar disease?

A

Ataxia* - lack of muscle co-ordination
Stumbling
Unsteadiness
Slurred speech
Intention tremor (tremor when doing a movement e.g. hand shaking when putting key in lock)

*notice wide-legged stance

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63
Q

What are the areas of the cerebrum called?

A

Left and right hemispheres

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64
Q

What does the cerebrum contain?

A
  • Outer cerebral cortex with multiple foldings
  • Deeper cerebral region
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65
Q

What is the outer cerebral cortex also known as?

A

Grey matter

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66
Q

What is the deeper cerebral region also known as?

A

White matter

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67
Q

What is grey matter made up of?

A

Cell bodies
Dendrites
Unmyelinated axons

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68
Q

What is white matter made up of?

A

Myelinated axons

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69
Q

How are the left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum connected?

A

By the corpus callosum

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70
Q

What does the corpus callosum do?

A

Co-ordinates movements between sides e.g. walking

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71
Q

What are the functions of the cerebrum?

A

Sensory perception
Motor control of skeletal muscles (movement)

72
Q

What is the name of the descending motor tract?

A

Corticospinal tract

73
Q

What is the corticospinal tract made up of?

A

Motor neuron axons

74
Q

Where do the motor tracts cross over (decussate)?

A

In the medulla oblongata

75
Q

What impact does the motor tracts decussating have on the body?

A
  • Left side of brain co-ordinates right side of body
  • Right side of brain co-ordinates left side of body
76
Q

What are the four lobes of the cerebrum called?

A
  • Frontal
  • Temporal
  • Parietal
  • Occipital
77
Q

What does the frontal lobe of the cerebrum control?

A

Motor skills

78
Q

What does the temporal lobe of the cerebrum control?

A

Hearing

79
Q

What does the parietal lobe of the cerebrum contain?

A

Sensory cortex

80
Q

What does the occipital lobe of the cerebrum control?

A

Vision

81
Q

What does the outer cerebral cortex contain?

A

Sensory cortex
Motor cortex

82
Q

What does the sensory cortex do?

A

Receives sensory input (e.g. touch, vibration) and maps it out

83
Q

What does the motor cortex do?

A

Controls voluntary movements of specific muscles

84
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

Area of brain that is active with different emotions

85
Q

What is the limbic system formed of?

A

Cerebrum
Diencephalon
Midbrain

86
Q

What are the key structures within the limbic system?

A

Hypothalamus (diencephalon)
Hippocampus (cerebrum)
Amygdala (cerebrum)

87
Q

When does the limbic system become active?

A

When dealing with emotional responses

88
Q

What is the key area for emotions?

A

Amygdala

89
Q

What does the hippocampus do?

A

Encode and retrieve memories

90
Q

What percentage of cardiac output does the brain receive?

A

20%

91
Q

How much blood does the brain receive?

A

750ml every min

92
Q

What is the Circle of Willis?

A

Where the carotid and vertebral arterial systems meet

93
Q

The Circle of Willis is a common location for which pathology?

A

Berry aneurysm

94
Q

How many cranial nerves are there?

A

12 pairs

95
Q

What are the cranial nerves?

A
  1. Olfactory
  2. Optic
  3. Oculomotor
  4. Trochlear
  5. Trigeminal
  6. Abducens
  7. Facial
  8. Vestibulocochlear
  9. Glossopharyngeal
  10. Vagus
  11. Accessory
  12. Hypoglossal
96
Q

Which cranial nerves are located in the cerebrum?

A

I Olfactory
II Optic

97
Q

Which cranial nerves are located in the midbrain?

A

III Oculomotor
IV Trochlear

98
Q

Which cranial nerves are located in the pons?

A

V Trigeminal
VI Abducens
VII Facial
VIII Vestibulocochlear

99
Q

Which cranial nerves are located in the medulla oblongata?

A

IX Glossopharyngeal
X Vagus
XI Accessory
XII Hypoglossal

100
Q

Mnemonic for remembering the cranial nerves

A

Oh, Oh, Oh, To Touch And Feel Vintage Green Velvet, Ahh Heaven!

101
Q

Cranial nerve I - name, function, location

A

I Olfactory
Sense of smell
Cerebrum

Unmylinated

102
Q

Cranial nerve II - name, function, location

A

II Optic
Vision
Cerebrum

Densely mylinated, highspeed avoids double vision when turning head

103
Q

Cranial nerve III - name, function, location

A

III Oculomotor
Eye movements, eyelid opening, pupil dilation
Midbrain

104
Q

Cranial nerve IV - name, function, location

A

IV Trochlear
Eye movements
Midbrain

105
Q

Cranial nerve V - name, function, location

A

V Trigeminal
Facial sensations, chewing, some taste
Pons

106
Q

Cranial nerve VI - name, function, location

A

VI Abducens
Eye movement (abducts eye)
Pons

107
Q

Cranial nerve VII - name, function, location

A

VII Facial
Taste, facial expressions, salivary glands
Pons

108
Q

Cranial nerve VIII - name, function, location

A

VIII Vestibulocochlear
Hearing, balance
Pons

109
Q

Cranial nerve IX - name, function, location

A

IX Glossopharyngeal
Taste, swallowing, tongue sensations
Medulla oblongata

110
Q

Cranial nerve X - name, function, location

A

X Vagus
Sensory/motor functions in chest/abdomen
Medulla oblongata

111
Q

Cranial nerve XI - name, function, location

A

Accessory
Neck and shoulder movement
Medulla oblongata

112
Q

Cranial nerve XII - name, function, location

A

Hypoglossal
Tongue movement and speech
Medulla oblongata

113
Q

How many eye muscles does the oculomotor nerve (III) move?

A

4 out of 6
Moves eyeball
Elevates eyelid

114
Q

How many eye muscles does the trochlear nerve (IV) move?

A

1 out of 6
Rotation
Used in reading

115
Q

How many eye muscles does the abducens nerve (VI) move?

A

1 out of 6
Abducts eye

116
Q

What can damage to the oculomotor, trochlear or abducens nerves cause?

A

Strabismus (squint)
Ptosis (drooping of upper eyelid)
Diplopia (double vision)

117
Q

What is strabismus?

A

One eye crossed

118
Q

What is ptosis?

A

Drooping of upper eyelid
Damage to CNIII oculomotor

119
Q

What is diplopia?

A

Double vision

120
Q

What are the branches of the trigeminal nerve (V)?

A

Ophthalmic
Maxillary
Mandibular

121
Q

What is the vagus nerve?

A

Largest nerve of the autonomic nervous system

122
Q

What information does the vagus nerve carry?

A

All sensory information from chest and abdomen
(Heart, GIT, lungs)

123
Q

What can damage to the vagus nerve cause?

A

Tachycardia
Dysphagia
Vaso-vagal syncope (fainting)

124
Q

Mnemonic for remembering the cranial nerve functions

A 
Some - Sensory
Say - Sensory
Money - Motor
Matters - Motor
But - Both
My - Motor
Brother - Both
Says - Sensory
Big - Both
Brains - Both
Matter - Motor
More - Motor
125
Q

Where does the spinal cord begin?

A

At the foramen magnum

126
Q

Where does the spinal cord terminate?

A

At vertebral level L2

127
Q

Where does the spinal cord meninges tissue continue to?

A

To level S2 (sacrum)

128
Q

What is the name of the terminus of the spinal cord?

A

Conus

129
Q

What is the cauda equina?

A

Spinal nerves that continue beyond the conus

130
Q

What does the spinal cord consist of?

A

White matter around a core of grey matter

131
Q

What does the spinal cord white matter consist of?

A

Tracts (bundles of myelinated axons)

132
Q

Which tracts make up the spinal cord white matter?

A

Motor tracts (descending)
Sensory tracts (ascending)

133
Q

Which direction does the motor tract of the spinal cord go and what does it do?

A

Descending
Controls voluntary and involuntary movement
(posture, balance)

134
Q

Which direction do the sensory tracts of the spinal cord go and what do they do?

A

Ascending
Transmit impulses from skin, tendons, muscles and joints
(touch, vibration, proprioception)

135
Q

What does the spinal cord grey matter consist of?

A

Cell bodies
Dendrites

136
Q

How is the spinal cord grey matter divided up?

A

Posterior (dorsal) horn
Anterior (ventral) horn

137
Q

What does the posterior (dorsal) horn do?

A

Receive sensory impulses

138
Q

What does the anterior (ventral) horn do?

A

Sends out motor impulses

139
Q

How is information processed up and down the spinal cord?

A
  1. Information enters the dorsal horn
  2. It synapses with interneurons and travels up a sensory tract to the thalamus
  3. Thalamus processes the information and sends it to the sensory cortex
  4. Sensory cortex sends motor information down the corticospinal tract where it synapses at the level it exits the spinal column
  5. The information then comes out of the ventral horn
140
Q

What are the spinal cord tracts called?

A

Dorsal columns
Spinothalamic tract
Corticospinal tract

141
Q

Which spinal cord tracts are ascending?

A

Dorsal columns
Spinothalamic tract

142
Q

Which spinal cord tract is descending?

A

Corticospinal tract

143
Q

What information does the dorsal column receive?

A

Light touch
Vibration
Proprioception

144
Q

What information does the spinothalamic tract receive?

A

Pain
Temperature

145
Q

What information does the corticospinal tract send out?

A

Motor impulses for voluntary movements

146
Q

What is a reflex arc?

A

A fast, automatic and unplanned sequence of actions that occurs in response to a stimulus

147
Q

What is the spinal reflex?

A

Integration of a reflex that happens only in the spine

148
Q

What does a reflex arc consist of?

A
  1. Sensory receptor
  2. Sensory neuron
  3. Interneuron
  4. Motor neuron
  5. Effector organ
149
Q

What are extensions of the spinal cord called?

A

Spinal nerves

150
Q

Where do spinal nerves exit the vertebral column?

A

Through holes in the vertebra called vertebral foramina

151
Q

Where is the subarachnoid space ?

A

Between the arachnoid mater and pia mater

152
Q

Where is the subdural space ?

A

Between the dura mater and arachnoid mater

153
Q

What are the choroid plexi ?

A

A network of blood vessels covered by a layer of ependymal cells.
They are responsible for producing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

154
Q

What nutrients are circulated by the CSF ?

A

Oxygen
Glucose
Ions (for nerve signalling/depolarisation)

155
Q

Which part of the nervous system does the hypothalumus control?

A

The ANS
Major regulator of visceral activities

156
Q

What is the key role of the hypothalamus?

A

Hormone regulation and maintenance of homeostasis

157
Q

Which part of the brain controls body temperature ?

A

Hypothalamus

158
Q

Which part of the brain regulates eating and drinking ?

A

Hypothalamus
Regulates appetite and satiety

159
Q

What is ataxia?

A

Lack of voluntary muscle coordination
Unsteady movements
Difficulties with balance and coordination
Often caused by damage to the cerebellum

160
Q

Why is cardiovascular health important for brain health ?

A

The brain requires a constant supply as it has a limited ability to store oxygen or glucose

161
Q

Rule for cranial nerve locations

A

2,2,4,4
* 2 - Cerebrum
* 2 - Midbrain
* 4 - Pons
* 4 - Medulla oblongata

162
Q

Why is the optic nerve useful to assess intracranial lesions ?

A

The optic nerve spans through the majority of the cranium.
Any abnormal pressure in the brain would likely press on this nerve

163
Q

Is the vagus nerve sensory or motor ?

A

Both
90% afferent nerve fibres (sensory) but motor signals are delivered to GIT, cardiovascular and respiratory system

164
Q

What is (vaso-vagal) syncope ?

A

Fainting
When the vagus nerve is overstimulated and blood pressure quickly drops

165
Q

Where are epidurals given and why ?

Verbal, not on slide

A

Below the level of the midlumbar spine
To ensure the needle doesn’t go directly into the spinal cord

166
Q

What would damage to any of the spinal tracts lead to ?

A

Loss of that tract’s function below that level in the body

167
Q

Nervous System & homeostasis

Whole body

A

Works closely with the endocrine system to regulate most body functions

168
Q

Nervous System & homeostasis

Integumentary system

A

Controls sweating and arrector pili.

169
Q

Nervous System & homeostasis

Skeletal system

A

Pain receptors in bone tissue warn of trauma or damage.

170
Q

Nervous System & homeostasis

Muscular system

A
  • Motor neurons stimulate muscular contractions.
  • The cerebellum co-ordinates skilled movements.
171
Q

Nervous System & homeostasis

Cardiovascular system

A

Medulla oblongata is the home of the CV control centre. It
governs cardiac output and regulates blood pressure

172
Q

Nervous System & homeostasis

Endocrine system

A
  • Hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland.
  • ANS regulates hormones (e.g. adrenaline).
173
Q

Nervous System & homeostasis

Respiratory system

A
  • Respiratory areas in the brain stem control breathing rate and depth.
  • ANS regulates airway diameter.
174
Q

Nervous System & homeostasis

Digestive system

A
  • ANS and enteric nervous system regulate digestion.
  • PNS stimulates digestive processes.
175
Q

Nervous System & homeostasis

Urinary system

A
  • The ANS regulates blood flow to the kidneys.
  • The CNS governs emptying of the urinary bladder.
176
Q

Nervous System & homeostasis

Reproductive system

A
  • Hypothalamus and limbic system govern sexual behaviour.
  • The ANS governs erection and ejaculation.
  • Hypothalamus regulates the release of pituitary hormones which influence the gonads.
  • Nerve impulses elicited by suckling cause the release of oxytocin and milk ejection in nursing mothers.
177
Q

Nervous System & homeostasis

Lymphatic and immune system

A

Certain neurotransmitters help regulate immune response

BioMed S2 (34 decks)

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