14 - 2 Flashcards
Stereotype
is a set of generalized beliefs and expectations about
a particular group and its members.
We view individuals not in terms of their unique, personal characteristics,
but in terms of characteristics we attribute to all the members of a
particular group.
Stereotype can lead to
prejudice
Prejudice
is a (usually) negative evaluation of a particular group and its
members.
Discrimination
is behaviour directed toward individuals based
on their membership in a particular group.
Observational learning approaches
states that people’s feelings about members of various groups are shaped by the behaviour of
parents, other adults, and peers.
Bigoted
parents may commend their children for expressing prejudiced attitudes, likewise, young children learn prejudice by imitating the behaviour of adult models.
Social identity theory
states that we use group membership as a source of pride
and self-worth.
Yet, sometimes in an effort to maximize our sense of self-esteem, we may come to think that
our own group (our ingroup) is better than groups to which we don’t belong (our outgroups)
Neither the observational learning approach nor the social identity approach
provides a full explanation for
stereotyping and prejudice.
Some psychologists argue that prejudice results when
there is perceived competition for scarce societal
resources.
Thus, when competition exists for jobs or housing,
members of majority groups may believe (however unjustly
or inaccurately) that minority group members are hindering
their efforts to attain their goals, and this can lead to
prejudice (Ex. “Immigrants are taking out jobs!”).
Social neuroscience
is the subfield of social psychology that seeks to identify the neural basis of social behaviour.
It looks at how we can illuminate our understanding of groups, interpersonal relations,
and emotions by understanding their neuroscientific underpinnings.
The amygdala (the structure in the brain that relates to emotion-evoking stimuli and
situations) showed more activation
when participants on an experiment saw an image of a black
face than when they saw a white one due to negative cultural associations with racial minorities.
The researchers theorized that culturally learned societal messages about race led to the brain
activation.
Research by Ziva Kunda et al. (2002) revealed
that stereotypes
disappeared as subjects’ exposure to the “stereotyped individual” continued.
strategies to diminish prejudice & discrimination:
Increasing contact between the target of stereotyping and the holder of
the stereotype.
Making positive values and norms against prejudice more conspicuous.
Providing information about the target of stereotyping.
Interpersonal attraction (or close relationship)
is positive
feelings for others; liking and loving.
What increases the likelihood of liking someone?
Proximity: Close geographical proximity leads to liking.
Mere exposure: Repeated exposure to a person is often
sufficient to produce attraction.
The reciprocity-of-liking effect: we tend to like those who like
us.
Similarity: though opposites attract, discovering that others have similar
attitudes, values, or traits promotes our liking for them.
Physical attractiveness: physically attractive people are more popular
than physically unattractive ones, if all other factors are equal.
Passionate or Romantic Love
1st types of love
represents a state of intense absorption
in someone that includes intense physiological arousal, psychological
interest, and caring for the needs of another.
Companionate Love
2nd types of live
is the strong affection that we have for those with
whom our lives are deeply involved.
- The love we feel for our parents, other family members, and close friends falls into
the category of companionate love.
Decision/Commitment component:
1st component of love
encompassing the initial cognition that one loves someone and the longer-term feelings of commitment to maintain love.
Intimacy component:
2nd component of love
encompassing feelings of closeness and connectedness.
Passion component:
3rd component of love
made up of the motivational drives relating to sex, physical closeness, and romance.
Aggression
is the intentional injury of, or harm to, another person.
Frustration
is the thwarting or blocking of some ongoing, goal-directed
behaviour.
Frustration-aggression theory:
Frustration produces anger, leading to a readiness to act aggressively.
Whether actual aggression occurs depends on the presence of aggressive cues, stimuli that have been
associated in the past with actual aggression or violence and that will trigger aggression again.
The observational learning (aka social learning) approach to
aggression emphasizes
that social and environmental conditions can teach individuals to be aggressive.
Observational learning theory pays particular attention not only to direct rewards and punishments that
individuals themselves receive, but also to the rewards and punishments that models receive for their
aggressive behaviour.
Frustration-aggression theory
would examine the girl’s frustration at no longer being able to use her
new toy.
Ex. A girl hits her younger brother when he damages one of her new toys
Observational learning theory
would look to previous situations in which the girl had viewed others
being rewarded for their aggression (perhaps she had watched a friend get to play with a toy after he
painfully twisted it out of the hand of another child).
Ex. A girl hits her younger brother when he damages one of her new toys
Observational learning theory has received wide research support
Ex. nursery-school-age children who have watched an adult model behave
aggressively and then receive reinforcement for it later display similar behaviour themselves if they have been angered, insulted, or frustrated after exposure.
The number of others present:
Helping People
When more than one person witnesses an emergency situation, a sense of diffusion of responsibility can arise among the bystanders witnessing the crisis, causing bystander apathy (witnesses to an emergency fail to help the victim in distress).
Diffusion of responsibility
Helping People
is the tendency for people to feel that
responsibility for acting is shared, or diffused, among those present.
Altruism
is helping behaviour that is beneficial
to others but clearly requires self-sacrifice.
