1. Introduction: Theories of Social Development

Question 1

accommodation

Answer 1

Modifying an existing schema to fit a new experience.

Question 2

age cohorts

Answer 2

People who were born in the same time period and share historical experiences.

Question 3

assimilation

Answer 3

Applying an existing schema to a new experience.

Question 4

chronosystem

Answer 4

The time-based dimension that can alter the operation of all other systems in Bronfenbrenner’s model, from microsystem to macrosystem.

Question 5

classical conditioning

Answer 5

A type of learning in which a new stimulus is repeatedly presented with a familiar stimulus until an individual learns to respond to the new stimulus in the same way as to the familiar stimulus.

Question 6

cognitive social learning theory

Answer 6

A theory that stresses the importance of observation and imitation in the acquisition of new behaviors, with learning mediated by cognitive processes.

Question 7

critical period

Answer 7

A specific time in an organism’s development during which external factors have a unique and irreversible impact.

Question 8

desensitization

Answer 8

Classical conditioning therapy used to overcome phobias and fears through exposure to increasingly intense versions of the feared stimulus; the process by which people show diminished emotional reaction to a repeated stimulus or event.

Question 9

domain specificity

Answer 9

Processes of development are different for different types of behavior, for example, moral judgments, manners, and peer relationships.

Question 10

drive-reduction theory

Answer 10

A version of learning theory suggesting that the association of stimulus and response in classical and operant conditioning results in learning only if it is accompanied by reduction of basic primary drives such as hunger and thirst.

Question 11

ecological theory

Answer 11

A theory stressing the influences of environmental systems and relations between systems on development.

Question 12

ego

Answer 12

In Freud’s theory, the rational component of the person- ality, which tries to satisfy needs through appropriate, socially acceptable behaviors.

Question 13

egocentric

Answer 13

Tending to view the world from one’s own perspective and having difficulty seeing things from another’s viewpoint.

Question 14

Electra complex

Answer 14

According to Freud, girls blame their mother for their lack of a penis and focus their sexual feelings on their father.

Question 15

equifinality

Answer 15

The convergence of developmental paths in which children follow very different paths to reach the same developmental end point.

Question 16

ethological theory

Answer 16

A theory that behavior must be viewed in a particular context and as having adaptive or survival value.

Question 17

exosystem

Answer 17

In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the collection of settings that impinge on a child’s development but in which the child does not play a direct role (e.g., parental workplace).

Question 18

generativity

Answer 18

A concern for people besides oneself, especially a desire to nurture and guide younger people and contribute to the next generation.

Question 19

id

Answer 19

In Freud’s theory, instinctual drives that operate on the basis of the pleasure principle.

Question 20

life history theory

Answer 20

The schedule of key events over the life course is influenced by natural selection to produce the largest
possible number of surviving offspring and thus maximize the successful passing on of the organism’s genes.

Question 21

macrosystem

Answer 21

In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the system that surrounds the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem, representing the values, ideologies, and laws of the society or culture.

Question 22

maturation

Answer 22

A biologically determined process of growth that unfolds over a period of time.

Question 23

mesosystem

Answer 23

In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the inter-relations among the components of the microsystem.

Question 24

microsystem

Answer 24

In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, the context in which children live and interact with the people and institutions closest to them, such as parents, peers, and school.

Question 25

multifinality

Answer 25

The divergence of developmental paths in which two individuals start out similarly but end at very different points.

Question 26

object permanence

Answer 26

The realization in infancy that objects and

people do not cease to exist when they are no longer visible.

Question 27

oedipus complex

Answer 27

Freud’s theory that boys become attracted to their mother and jealous and fearful of their father.

Question 28

operant conditioning

Answer 28

A type of learning that depends on the consequence of behavior; rewards increase the likelihood that a behavior will recur, but punishment decreases that likelihood.

Question 29

psychodynamic theory

Answer 29

Freud’s theory that development is determined by innate biologically based drives shaped by encounters with the environment in early childhood.

Question 30

psychosocial theory

Answer 30

Erikson’s theory that each stage of development depends on accomplishing a psychological task in interactions with the social environment.

Question 31

social dyad

Answer 31

A pair of social partners, such as friends, parent and child, or marital partners

Question 32

social information-processing theory

Answer 32

An explanation of a person’s social behavior in terms of his or her assessment and evaluation of the social situation as a guide in deciding on a course of social action.

Question 33

sociocultural theory

Answer 33

Vygotsky’s theory that development emerges from interactions with more skilled people and the institutions and tools provided by the culture.

Question 34

superego

Answer 34

In Freud’s theory, the personality component that is the repository of the child’s internalization of parental or societal values, morals, and roles.

Question 35

systems

Answer 35

Developmental contexts made up of interacting parts or components, for example, a family.

Question 36

transactional

Answer 36

Ongoing interchanges between social partners such as a parent and child across time that result in modifications of the social behavior of each.

Question 37

zone of proximal development

Answer 37

The difference between children’s level of performance while working alone and while working with more experienced partners.